著者

土居 光知

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.26, no.2, pp.73-89, 1968 (Released:2007-05-30)

著者

斯波 義信

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.76, no.3, pp.241-257, 2022 (Released:2022-09-13)

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The idea of broadly classifying social classes into the simin “Four Occupations” of the shi (gentry scholars/bureaucrats), nong (peasant farmers), gong (artisans), and shang (merchants) first appeared in China during the spring and autumn periods. Subsequently, the system of state bureaucracy emerged under the unified empire of the Qing and Han dynasties after the Warring States period. In this context, the policy of Fuguo Qiangbing (“enrich the country, strengthen the military”) was adopted, and the Four Occupations came to be ranked in a manner that discriminated between the different occupations; that is, with the merchants and artisans, who were viewed as inferior, being subject to heavier taxes, as well as being conscripted for military service and excluded from becoming bureaucrats. Thus, discrimination became firmly entrenched in the national attitude of the Han dynasty. (View PDF for the rest of the abstract.)

著者

伊原 昭

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.32, no.2, pp.57-98, 1974 (Released:2007-05-30)

著者

加藤 常賢

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.15, no.2, pp.93-134, 1957 (Released:2007-05-30)

著者

小林 昇

出版者

The Japan Academy

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.55, no.3, pp.175-212, 2001 (Released:2007-06-22)

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Ever since its 'discovery' by William S. Jevons toward the end of the 19th century, Richard Cantillon's sole published work, Essai sur la nature du commerce en général, 1755, has been given critical acclaim by such first-rate theoreticians as H. Higgs, J.A. Schumpeter, F. Hayek, T.W. Hutchison, and J.R. Hicks. It is widely recognized as an essential golden link between William Petty and Francois Quesnay in the history of economics. On the other hand, James Steuart's major work, An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Oeconomy, 2 vols., also published in the latter half of the 18th century, 1767, has long been neglected both in Great Britain and in France, and has been duely acknowledged only after the end of World War II. That it was given some notice in France during the French Revolution and translated into French by E.F. Sénover and published, and that even its another French translation was also completed (but not published) by Goguel, failed to secure a rightful place for Steuart in the history of political economy during his days and after.It is indeed of great academic interest and importance to place James Steuart in pre-Adam Smith political economy of the 18th century and to examine how Steuart's Principles is related with Cantillon's Essai, both positively and negatively. Because of the asymmetrical reception of these two works, however, this task has effectively only begun, and has thus far produced only A. Brewer's Richard Cantillon. Pioneer of Economic Theory, 1992. And it has recently been shown empirically by P. Groenewegen that the Cantillon to whom Steuart referred to was not Richard Cantillon but his brother-in-law, Philip Cantillon, and The Analysis o f Trade, 1759 by Philip explains in its inside of cover that the author followed Richard's work very closely, but it is of far inferior quality than the latter's Essai. Thus, it is hardly imaginable that Richard Cantillon's work had a direct impact on James Steuart's. However, within the context of chaos during the early phase of the establishment of political economy as a discipline in the 18th century, it is quite worth-while to examine whether or not Richard Cantillon had any indirect influence on James Steuart, and if so, in what forms.This being said, however, these two classics do not render themselves to ready comparison. Cantillon's Essai is characterized by the clarity and rigor of its purely theoretical analysis while Steuart's The Principles is an attempt at equally theoretical development but always on the basis of detailed historical and institutional, thus complex, reality of how national economies operated. Abundant fruit can be expected when today's observers free themselves from their narrow theory or theoretical outlook in assessing them.In this essay, I do not attempt a direct and detailed comparison of these classical masters. Instead I try to compare them on how they dealt with the following broader and urgent issues of political economy: a. the principle of wealth, b. population, c. money, d. industry, profit, and entrepreneur, e. circular flow, and f. the issues of economic liberalism versus mercantilism (or rather dirigisme in French context).We must also note that these two classical authors both were born outside England, obtained meaningful experiences particularly in France, and looked at the same subject matters of money, credit and the circular flow from their respective angles of observation. They are sure to give us fresh insights and perspectives on the so-called 'nationality of political economy' (Jevons).

著者

小葉田 淳

出版者

The Japan Academy

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.47, no.1, pp.1-15, 1992 (Released:2007-06-22)

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Rekidai Hoan is a collection of Ryukyuan diplomatic documents, covering 500 years from the 15th to the 19th century, which are the first class historical materials, to elucidate the history of Ryukyuan intercourse and especially trade with foreign countries and to make clear the historical situations of the East Asia of the times as well.

著者

斎藤 修

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.76, no.2, pp.203-234, 2022 (Released:2022-02-15)

参考文献数

57

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The historical interpretation of the British industrial revolution has undergone a significant change since the 1960s. The publication of British Economic Growth, 1688-1959 by P. Deane and W. A. Cole in 1962 marked an epoch by applying national accounting methods to eighteenth- and nineteenth-century historical data. Their stage-specific estimates of real gross domestic product (GDP) growth were thought to reflect the acceleration process of industrial and GDP growth in the c.1760-1830 period, during which a series of innovations are said to have revolutionised the scene of manufacturing. However, this interpretation was radically revised by Nick Crafts' 1985 book, British Economic Growth during the Industrial Revolution. With his estimates of slower rates of GDP growth and arguments derived from growth accounting analysis, it is suggested that the contribution of new technologies (such as steam engine) to output growth was surprisingly low, taking more time in harvesting the fruit of a general-purpose technology (GPT) than we tended to assume. The thesis of slow growth was reconfirmed by a 1992 joint-paper by Crafts and Knick Harley and the growth accounting scenario by Crafts' own 2018 book. (View PDF for the rest of the abstract.)

著者

小山 敦子

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.19, no.2, pp.75-82, 1961 (Released:2007-05-30)

著者

久松 潜一

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.23, no.1, pp.19-30, 1965 (Released:2007-05-30)

著者

小西 甚一

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.18, no.2, pp.97-118, 1960 (Released:2007-05-30)

著者

芳賀 幸四郎

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.13, no.1, pp.23-63, 1955 (Released:2007-05-30)

被引用文献数

1 1

著者

苧阪 直行

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.70, no.3, pp.135, 2016 (Released:2016-12-28)

参考文献数

47

被引用文献数

1

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Consciousness plays an essential role in high-level cognition, which includes a long list of tasks such as perception, language comprehension, self-recognition, representation of other's mind, mental operations, complex reasoning and problem solving. Despite its importance, the neural basis of consciousness have not yet been revealed. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is an established technique for the study of neural correlates of consciousness (NCC) that involve high-level cognition by measuring cardiovascular responses. These works have indicated that the conscious mind emerges from the interaction of multiple neural networks. Among these networks, the working (executive) memory (WM) network coupled with the default mode network and dorsal attentional-network have been recently recognized to play a major role. We show evidences from cognitive social neuroscience experiments that indicate neural mechanisms supporting WM play a critical role in generating consciousness through executive functions such as updating, shifting and inhibiting incoming information. These executive works function in the dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) and anterior cingulate cortex, with coordination across these and other brain areas being related to task dependent processes. WM's capacity limitation also plays a critical for active consciousness. Theoretical modeling of consciousness using graph theory, with which we can quantify large-scale networks of the brain, supports our WM-based consciousness. We propose a three-layered model of consciousness consisting of vigilance-, awareness-, and recursive-consciousness, which correspond to biological-, sensory-motor-, and self-consciousness, respectively. Among these layers, self-consciousness is likely critical for social interaction, which involves working together with other minds. Consistently, modular brain areas that bind multiple minds have been found in the medial PFC using fMRI. By introducing a false believe task, we confirmed high-level intentionality and meta-representation could also be involved in WM's executive function working on the dorsolateral PFC, which makes inference of another's mind possible.

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.7, no.2, pp.87-94, 1949

著者

天皇陛下

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.62, no.2, pp.127-140, 2007 (Released:2017-04-05)

著者

伊藤 誠

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.76, no.1, pp.79-99, 2021 (Released:2021-11-20)

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Japanese capitalism has formed a vicious circle among multiple socio-economic crises under neoliberalism. This paper reexamines the historical origin of these crises, their structural relations, and identify their core, fundamental issues. It will be shown also how three different types of natural disasters also deepen socio-economic crises, thereby endangering the metabolic reproduction of human lives and nature. How can we overcome such an age of deep crises? More than ever, it is indispensable to reconsider the historical significance and task of transforming neoliberal capitalism in the world and in Japan. (1) Six multiple crises in a structural, vicious circle The inflationary crisis of 1973-75 initiated a long downturn of Japanese capitalism. In addition to the excessive supply of currencies and credit in the process of transition from the Bretton Woods international monetary system to the floating exchange rates system, over-accumulation of industrial capital in relation to the limitation of flexible supply of both labor power within major capitalist economies and primary products such as crude oil in the world market inevitably caused sharp rises in wages and prices of primary products and squeezed profit rates as a fundamental factor behind the crisis. In this regard the inflationary crisis revealed anew the basic contradiction of capitalist economy in the commodification of labor power, together with the instability of credit mechanisms. (View PDF for the rest of the abstract.)

著者

石井 紫郎

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.66, no.1, pp.31-46, 2011 (Released:2017-04-05)

著者

荒井 献

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.74, no.3, 2020

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Wie im Judentum des gleichen Zeitalters erwartete auch das frühe Christentum das „Reich Gottes" in seiner Gänze in der fernen Zukunft des Weltendes. Andererseits findet man aber im Neuen Testament den Ausspruch : …das Reich Gottes ist inwendig in euch (Lk 17:21). Dieses Wort ist wahrscheinlich eine Überlieferung, könnte aber auch direkt auf Jesus zurückgehen. Nach dem Evangelisten des ältesten Evangeliums, Markus, steht an erster Stelle von Jesu Mission der Ausspruch : …das Reich Gottes ist herbeigekommen (Mk 1:15), weil die Perfektform dieses Verbs auch die Bedeutungsnuance hat, dass etwas in sehr naher Zukunft geschehen wird. Außerdem sagt Jesus auch : Ich sah wohl den Satanas vom Himmel gefallen als einen Blitz (Lk 10:18). Dieses Wort stammt sicher aus einer visionären Erfahrung Jesu.<br> Wenn dem so ist, dürfte in der neutestamentlichen Wissenschaft der Gegenwart eigentlich keine Übereinstimmung darin bestehen, dass das „Reich Gottes" im Mittelpunkt von jesu Missionsbewegung stand. Man sollte wohl eher annehmen, dass Jesus die Eschatologie des Judentums seiner Zeit, die das „Reich Gottes" in ferner Zukunft erwartete, entmythologisierte und auf den traditionellen allmächtigen Gott des Alten Testaments zurückführte, in dem Gott dem von ihm geschaffenen Menschen im Hier und Jetzt das Leben schenkt.

著者

内野 熊一郎

出版者

日本学士院

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.8, no.1, pp.85-154, 1950 (Released:2007-05-30)

著者

福田 歓一

出版者

The Japan Academy

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.48, no.3, pp.171-187, 1994 (Released:2007-06-22)

参考文献数

27

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In any political discourse some diachronic terms are indispensable, but these terms themselves were originally made in some age in the contexts of real situations. Therefore we are obliged to use these terms with enough consciousness of their original contexts.Moreover the scholars in Non-Western world have another problem concerning translation of terminology. Both European and native term has many meanings, and one term scarcely corresponds to its counterpart.Japanese term minzoku covers ethnos, populus, natio and so on, which on the other hand cover far more meanings than minzoku, and also have special contexts in their usages.Although the term“nation”derives from Middle Ages, its modern usage presupposed the emergence of sovereign state as a governing mechanism and provided it of some sense of community. The emergence of modern languages and the communication through printed matters made it possible and through French Revolution the new model of political integration“one nation, one language, one state”was established, while against Napoleon's imperialism nationalism rose in Germany and so on. Around the 1st world war“nation self determination”came to be a principle after the collapse of empires, Austrian, Russian and Turkish. And after the 2nd, this principle lead to the independence of colonies in Asia and Africa. In 1960s new term of ethnicity, the status of ethnic groups within the framework of nation state, was made originally in the mufti-racial United States of America. And this term came to be applied to the ethnic movements in Western Europe, the very birth place of nation states, and also extended to the developing countries, which covered former colonial territories and naturally consisted of many ethnic groups. The end of Soviet domination of Eastern Europe brought the third wave of“national self determination”, which also disintegrated the Soviet Union itself as well as Yugoslavia. Now we are watching many tragedies in e.g. Gorgia and Bosnia. But “national self-determination”no more could be the solution of many problems in this age of multi-identity of the individual, and the relativization of state system would be indispensable for the prospect of mankind.

出版者

The Japan Academy

雑誌

日本學士院紀要 (ISSN:03880036)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.58, no.3, pp.171-179, 2004 (Released:2007-06-22)

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Nation State as the basic unit of the political life of mankind, is a fiction in its three aspects. First, it is a symbol formed in modern Western Europe. Second, an ideology: one nation, one language, and one state has had so strong an effect in Western Europe. Third, a fiction of equal sovereignty. And such an ideology proved realization in 1870-71 in the unifications of Italy and Germany. Extra Europe Japan achieved such an example in East Asia.In 1919 Versaille Peace Treaty realized this fiction in Europe by the principle of national self-determination. Russian Revolution also brought the independence of Finland and Baltic countries as well as Poland in Europe. The League of Nations emerged as the co-operative system of peace proposed by Wilson. But its caliber came to be limited by U. S. A. refusal of participation. After the dissolution of Turkish Empire Arab Area was still under the control of Britain and France until the independence of Egypt in 1922, and of Iraq as well as Saudi Arabia in 1932.After the Second World War came the global age of the nation state. The dissolution of colonial system proceeded until the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997. The United Nations started in 1945 as the new international system, and in 1960 adopted the resolution of colonies which led the globalization of nation state system. But it was accompanied by the nominalization of nation state itself. On the other hand Soviet Union under Stalin established her colonial empire over the countries under her occupation in the dogma of the limited Sovereignty. Against this threat Western Europe formed the North Atlantic System with U. S. A. The cold war between these two powers was symbolized by the wall of Berlin.In spite of the dissolution of colonial empire, Western Europe enjoyed economic prosperity, and there appeared some change of basic unit of political life: the unification and the differentiation in nation states. Unification proceeded from EC to EU. EURO as the common currency and EU Constitution came to be. Differentiation in France, Spain and Italy has been proceeded and in Britain also devolution has emerged.The collapse of Soviet system also emancipated nation states in Eastern Europe. And the independence of Israel, the conpensation of Christian World to the Jews by the depression of Palestine people produced tragedy in Arab World.Now we are witnessing the unlimited imigrants seeking chance and better life. In England the industry of many area cannot carry out without the labour power of such immigrants. And in Japan so many women come to marry the peasants of Tohoku area from China, Korea and Philippines. These cases may be rather shocking to the people of Tokyo area.