著者

小林 信彦 Nobuhiko KOBAYASHI 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 = ST.ANDREW'S UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF THE RESEARCH INSTITUTE (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.26, no.3, pp.107-140, 2001-03-15

---

Japanese kamis who hate sins get angry and bring about disasters when men do wrong. Without sins they are happy and do not cause disasters. Taking advantage of this behaviour, the Japanese framed the idea of kekwa They tried to soothe angry kamis by chanting sutras as magic formulae in order to stop disasters such as droughts and plagues. This is a new type of harahe and therefore repenting is not involved in spite of its name "kekwa" (to repent).

著者

小林 信彦 Nobuhiko Kobayashi 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学人間科学 = HUMAN SCIENCES REVIEW, St. Andrew's University (ISSN:09170227)

巻号頁・発行日

no.30, pp.99-128, 2006-01-15

---

In a European folk tale called Saint Peter's Mother, an old woman, who was wicked in her life and fell to Hell, is pulled out of Hell with the aid of an onion. Other sinners in Hell take hold of her, so that they may be pulled out along with her. Noticing this, she kicks them. At that moment, the onion breaks, and all fall back into Hell. It is found that she is still mean, just as she was in her former life, and unworthy of being rescued from Hell. Many variants of this story are found all over the Christian world. And Henry F. Fullenwider proposes to add one more to the list of variants(Fullenwider, "The Onion and the Spiderweb: Paul Carus' Karma and Other Literary Variants of Grimms' Sankt Peters Mutter [Bolte/Polvka, num. 221]," Fabula 28, 1987, pp. 320-326). The story which he takes up as a new variant of Saint Peter's Mother is unique in that it is a Buddhist story composed by a European. It is The Spider Web of Paul Carus(1852-1919), who was born and educated in Germany, and immigrated to America to be an advocator of "religion of science" as editor of The Open Court. As Kayoko Nagao(長尾佳代子)points out in her paper(長尾,「芥川龍之介『蜘蛛の糸』原作の主題 -ポ-ル・ケ-ラスが『カルマ』で言おうとしたこと-」,『仏教文学』27, 京都, 2003, pp. 161-172), The Spider-web is based on an episode that is repeated in such collections of Buddhist narratives as the Avadnaataka and the Divyvadna. This ancient Buddhist episode consists of four parts: When Buddha appears on earth, he smiles and sheds light,* which reaches all places including Hell (1). Bathed in Buddha's light, sinners in Hell are cheered (2). Thereupon Buddha sends his proxy to Hell (3). And those sinners there seize the opportunity for deliverance in the distant future (4). Lon Feer's translation of the Avadnaataka had appeared two years before Carus published his Spider Web(Avadnaataka, cent lgendes buddhiques, traduites du sanskrit par M. Lon Feer, Annales du Muse Guimet 18, Paris, 1891). Carus had diligently studied Buddhism, read almost all translations of Buddhist scriptures then available in Europe, and written many books on Buddhism. So he was following the Buddhist tradition when he wrote The Spider Web, which runs as follows: A sinner called Kandata has been suffering tortures in Hell. When Buddha appears on earth, the light shed by him reaches Hell and sinners there soften. Buddha sends a spider as his proxy to Kandata, who takes hold of the web and begins to climb up. Soon he feels the thread trembling, for many sinners are climbing after him. Kandata becomes frightened and shouts, "Let go the cobweb. It is mine." At that moment, the spiderweb breaks, and all fall back into Hell. The meaning of this story is that it is essential to follow Buddha's teaching, according to which there exists no such thing as tman(self). Kandata falls back into Hell, because he has not thrown away the illusion of tman, saying that the cobweb is his alone. A memory of Saint Peter's Mother might have come to Carus, when he wrote the scene of falling again into Hell, but this is not the core of the story. The Spider Web is a failure story composed on the basis of the tradi-tional Buddhist episode. Being ignorant of this, Fullenwider misses the meaning of Carus' story, and he puts a special emphasis on the scene of falling back into Hell. The Spider Web of Paul Carus cannot be a variant of Saint Peter's Mother. *Here light is a symbol of Buddha's teaching.

著者

沖浦 和光 Kazuteru Okiura 桃山学院大学文学部

雑誌

桃山学院大学キリスト教論集 = St. Andrew's University Journal of Christian Studies (ISSN:0286973X)

巻号頁・発行日

no.33, pp.123-147, 1997-03-15

著者

中井 紀明 Noriaki Nakai 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学キリスト教論集 = St. Andrew's University Journal of Christian Studies (ISSN:0286973X)

巻号頁・発行日

no.41, pp.1-32, 2005-01-20

---

Emily Dickinson left almost 1800 poems, many of them in bundles later called fascicles; they have been usually regarded as mss of poems chronologically bound just for preservation. Recently in the United States, however, some scholars find unity in fascicles without clarifying why only their particular fascicles have unity under the editor Dickinson. My hypotheses are: Franklin's "fascicles" are in fact distinct collections of Emily Dickinson's poetry, and his "sets" are groups of poems waiting for later inclusion in further fascicles. My project is to offer the poet a persistent reader taking her fascicles as collections of poems edited by the poet herself and as more than just chronological. My method of reading-thinking-fermenting-writing of/ about the fascicles was formed by Stanley Fish's Reader Response Criticism and has been the main engine in my analyses of Fascicles 1~4 and will take me as far as Fascicle 40. My experiment is to deliberately become me the first reader of her first "published" collection of her poems edited by the poet herself and to intentionally have the recent scholarship on Dickinson's poetry and fascicles stop intruding into my reading. The first reader is supposed to know nothing in terms of interpretations and commentary accumulated later. The only and main source of information on this "publication" is the collection itself, and the tradition of close reading from New Criticism to Reader Response Criticism will help me here. In Fascicle 1 Dickinson the editor juxtaposes nature and man in terms of time: nature rotates and overcomes time; man proceeds in a forward direction, dies and never returns. Fascicle 2 is not just a bundle of poems but an elaborately edited collection of poems, logically following Fascicle 1. In Fascicle 2, against the softening background of nature, are presented big themes like time, the human destiny of death, faith in Christ, and lastly the poet's scrupulous feelings about having faith which seem to be rooted in her own life. Although Fascicle 2 is breathlessly and daringly taking up big themes for only the second fascicle in a work of forty, it quite impressively binds these themes and reveals Emily Dickinson as a skillful editor. In Fascicle 3 Dickinson the editor intentionally repeats many words to bind this fascicle. Flowers are so abundant in this fascicle as to give solace to the reader facing the inevitability of dying. Days "die" into lingering yesterdays and a year "went up this evening", but for the first time in the first three fascicles substantial human deaths are treated. I discuss the eleventh, seventeenth, eighteenth, and the climactic twentythird poem, where, I suggest, the poet and the editor in her are engaged in not so much overcoming as outwitting the human destiny of death. This is the fourth article in my project of reading each of the forty fascicles as a distinct collection of poems chosen and edited by Dickinson. Literary texts are texts whose rhetorical intentions, deliberately and meticulously interwoven into the text by the author, are traceable through reader responses. Since we cannot expect Dickinson herself to deliver an oracle as to her real intentions in the fascicles, I have sought to experience the text of Fascicle 4 as a reader sensitive to the reading process. My conclusion is that, like the first three fascicles, it is a thematically united collection. Through the sixteen poems of Fascicle 4, Dickinson vividly depicts the stream of conflicting thoughts in the narrator's mind against the background of the Gospel According to St. John (King James Version). In the former part of the fascicle (poems #1 through #7), the narrator is at the same time pleased at the rebirth of the land in springtime (poems #1 and #3) and made gloomy by the contrast with the stark reality of human existence (poems #2 through #7). In poem #8, the turning point in the reasoning process of the fascicle, the narrator recapitulates her joy at the rebirth of Nature but reveals at the end of the poem that the fascicle's real concern is not with Nature but with human rebirth (3:5). In the latter part of the fascicle (poems #9 through #16), where death and human resurrection are discussed against the contrasting background of a cheerful description of Nature's rebirth in springtime (poems #10, #11, and #14), we discover the narrator's growing doubt as to the possibility of human resurrection because of the difficulty of maintaining the unconditional "faith" demanded by Jesus. According to Jesus, human resurrection is possible only for those with faith in him as the Son of God: "he that believeth on me shall never thirst"(6:35) and "he that believeth on me hath everlasting life."(6:47) The narrator, fearing that compared with the annual rebirth of Nature in springtime human resurrection is difficult, finds herself unable to respond to the message of St. John's Gospel, which gradually comes to weigh more and more heavily on her mind. For such a scrupulous narrator, to believe in Jesus as the Son of God without seeing for herself the miracles St. John claims for Him is problematic. Should we believe in things we have not seen? "Blessed are they that have not seen, and yet have believed"(20:29). If so, then the narrator, who has not seen and therefore cannot believe, is unblessed. She cannot face Jesus because she does not qualify to stand among those disciples chosen for their unshakeable belief in Him. She feels unqualified to be added to those selected for their trustworthiness as the Twelve Disciples, and finally turns herself into a humble daisy devoid of heart and mind and free from all demands (poem #12). At this point (poems #9, #13, #15, and #16) the narrator uncovers some graves. She learns that many of the dead, either because they are animals without minds or because they are without belief, are left abandoned in their graves even when springtime comes, while an exceptional woman, presumably being possessed of a firm faith, has been raised to Heaven immediately following her death in springtime. It is as if she has been resurrected not on this earth but in Heaven itself. Are we being pressured to accept the reality that God discriminates among the dead and favors those with faith in Jesus? The narrator's skepticism toward the possibility of human resurrection, which takes belief in Jesus as its key, and her nihilistic fear of being incapable of faith gradually pervade the fascicle. Are we doomed to wander in helpless anguish through this haphazard world, buffeted by Fate, waiting only to die? In this fascicle Dickinson is engaged in what I call"polemical reasoning". Each poem is an independent narrative but at the same time is contributing through "polemical reasoning" to the formation of the fascicle's overall narrative of the difficulty of human resurrection. Dickinson is referring the reader to the words of Jesus in St. John's Gospel that "I am the resurrection, and the life: he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live; and whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die". (11:25) Though enchanted and moved by this Gospel prophesy, the poet finds herself unable to respond to it. In the return of flowers in the springtime she sees human resurrection, yet she cannot hold on to the belief in Jesus as the Son of God. As we read the poems in this fascicle, we follow the theme of rebirth in Nature, which is simultaneously contrasted to the narrator's fear of the difficulty of human resurrection due to her increasingly shaky belief in Jesus. We will now trace how the narrative of each of the sixteen individual poems contributes to the fascicle's overall narrative of "polemical reasoning". The first line of each poem is shown in parentheses following the poem number. In Poem #1 ("Perhaps you'd like to buy a flower,") the narrator rejoices, confident of Nature's seasonal rebirth. In Poem #2 ("Water, is taught by thirst.") the narrator lets us know that there are both bright and dark sides to everything on this earth, and that we should admit that we recognize and appreciate things most deeply when we suffer from their lack. At the beginning of the poem we have the "water of life" whose lack leads to thirstiness; we must wait until the Nicodemus Mystery in poem #8 for "water" that does not lead to thirstiness (4:14) and that gives rebirth (3:5). It is said that love is most dearly felt when the loved one dies, but the stark reality is that dying means not returning to dwell on the earth. In Poem #3 ("Have you got a Brook in your little heart,") the flowers of poem #1 and the water of poem #2 are linked, and a new item, "life is " added. In the first and second stanzas we see how water gives life to flowers and to birds, but the same river, we learn in the third and the fourth stanzas, can also at times flood or dry up. That the narrator seeks to draw our attention to this harsh reality at the end of the poem is perhaps the result of her jealousy toward Nature's guaranteed annual rebirth, but probably also because she cannot bring herself to celebrate unreservedly the renewal of Nature thanks to her pessimistic view of the possibility of human resurrection. Poem #4 ("Flowers - Well - if anybody") provides readers with a puzzling problem of definition. Flowers, as the embodiment of Nature, give us "transport" with their return at their successive springtime, but at the same time "trouble" through the fact that the dead among us can never return. The "extasy" caused in us by this combination of "transport" and "trouble" humbles us. There is one more point that must be mentioned here in connection with the fascicle's overall narrative of "polemical reasoning." The narrator wants to find, even at the expense of a reward, someone who could truly claim to be represented by the following words of Jesus: "…but the water that I shall give him shall be in him a well of water springing up into everlasting life (my emphasis)."(4:14). Like Thomas the Apostle, she is not one of those "that have not seen, and yet have believed"(20:29) Unable to see what Jesus did with her own eyes, she cannot believe in Him. In Poem #5 ("Pigmy seraphs - gone astray -") the narrator, looking at the roses she has raised, cannot resist dwelling upon the limited opulence of human affairs: human splendors are nothing compared with the natural world around us. In Poem #6 ("Heart not so heavy as mine") the narrator, gloomy thanks probably to the stress on the harsh reality of human existence in poems #2 through #5, receives solace from a song she overhears. Poem #7 ("Soul, Wilt thou toss again?") describes another feature of harsh human reality which is dominated by haphazardness and lack of planning. In Poem #8 ("An altered look about the hills - ") the narrator recapitulates her concern with the seasonal rebirth of Nature, while in the last two lines her real concern with human resurrection is made clear. At the end of the poem the reader finally learns why flowers and the water that gives them life appear so repeatedly in poems #1 through #4. We also learn about "Nicodemus' Mystery" which, though concerned specifically with human resurrection, is here being applied to natural rebirth too. The reference comes from the passage in the Gospel According to St. John: "Except a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God"(3:5). We understand for the first time here that the theme of human resurrection is the main theme of this fascicle over and above that of natural rebirth. In the following poems the possibility of human resurrection is implicitly doubted because of its dependence on unwavering faith in Jesus. In Poem #9 ("Some, too fragile for winter winds") the narrator, after having rejoiced in the springtime rebirth of Nature, is trying to see into some graves to find out whether those buried there are also revived. The graves have protected those within - children, sparrows and lambs - from the winter. The words "unnoticed by the Father" deserve notice. What is happening here to those in the grave who, like the children, are too immature to profess "faith," or to those who, like the sparrows and lambs, have no mind that would enable them to have faith? Are they unnoticed by the Father simply because they don't have faith? Does being unnoticed by the Father mean that they must remain in the grave without the possibility of resurrection? In Poem #10 ("Whose are the little beds, - I asked") the narrator is watching the flowers revived in springtime and now enjoying sleep different in kind from that in the graves. . Poem #11 ("For every Bird a nest - ") presents, as in poem #10, flowers and birds making homes for themselves and enjoying their lives in springtime. Poem #12 ("'They have not chosen me,' he said,") is a crucial poem in the greater narrative of the fascicle, centering on the story of the Twelve Disciples. Jesus chooses the twelve for their "trustworthiness" or "promising nature"(15:16). Elsewhere Jesus tells them "I chose you" in the knowledge that one of them, Judas, would betray Him (6:70). Reading Jesus' thoughts at the moment of betrayal, the narrator is hesitant to be added to the twelve disciples chosen for their "promising" nature. Knowing that her faith is too unstable to live up to Jesus' expectations, she feels happier to be regarded by Jesus as no more than a roadside daisy, lacking in consciousness and consequently free from the demands of faith. Poem #13 ("She bore it till the simple veins") tells of a woman who died at the end of spring. This woman did not stay in the grave but went immediately to Heaven, presumably because her firm belief in Jesus had been recognized. She was resurrected, but not on the earth as flowers are. Are people with faith resurrected only in Heaven? Is going to Heaven the only way to be born again? Is God discriminating between the woman raised to Heaven in this poem and those remaining in their graves in poems #9, #15, and #16? Does lack of faith mean that we must remain in our grave deserted by God? Poem #14 ("We should not mind so small a flower") talks about the significance of a flower, symbol of the rebirth of the garden she lost, and the relative difficulty of human resurrection. "Faith", a keyword crucial to the "polemical reasoning" in this latter part of the fascicle, is repeated in this poem and the next. In Poem #15 ("This heart that broke so long ?") the narrator, uncertain of her faith, sympathizes with the dead left deserted in their graves. At the end of the first stanza she explains why this keyword "faith" has become so crucial: she had sought after Jesus as her Savior, but her search had been "in vain." In Poem #16 ("On such a night, or such a night,") the narrator's sympathy is with the small children laid so early in their tiny graves. Must they remain there forever because of their lack of faith?

著者

赤瀬 雅子 Masako AKASE 桃山学院大学文学部

雑誌

国際文化論集 = INTERCULTURAL STUDIES (ISSN:09170219)

巻号頁・発行日

no.14, pp.163-171, 1996-09-30

著者

佐々木 英哲 Eitetsu SASAKI 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学人間科学 = HUMAN SCIENCES REVIEW, St. Andrew's University (ISSN:09170227)

巻号頁・発行日

no.22, pp.1-16, 2001-12-10

---

Sacvan Bercovitch has clarified in The Rites of Assent that, in stark contrast to European individualism, which is likely to confront society, paradoxically, American individualism has had a share in consensus building and contributed to the Americanization of society. This process is called the American Way. Hester's struggle to multiply the meaning of the letter A in The Scarlet Letter (1850) -from the initial Adultery to Angel and Admirable-does not interfere with the American Way. On the supposition that the nineteenth-century domesticity and gender ideology has stealthily slipped into the seventeenth-century setting of the story, I investigate how Chillingworth the cuckold and Dimmesdale the paramour contribute together to the American Way. Chillingworth is denied the privileges, first, of creating an affectionate, patriarchic family, as evaluated in nineteenth-century America, second, of occupying a patriarchic position, and third, of establishing a male patriarchal gender identity (which he becomes obsessed with retrieving). He becomes all the more sensitive to his own impotency and Abject physique when he sees Pearl, the child of Hester and Dimmesdale. As a "living hieroglyphic," not the Alphabet of the letter A that could be decoded, Pearl is a mere infant-an infant whose etymology is 'incapable of speech'; not the suitable object to be appropriated by the learned man in a prerogative position like Chillingworth, the manipulator of the Language/Logos in the so-called Symbolic of Lacanian psychoanalysis. The author lets the revengeful Chillingworth misuse the nineteenth-century domestic ideology that warned of the threat of that nameless horror represented by the bachelor, i. e., homosexual sex. Chillingworth gains support from this ideology, pretends to be a pious Christian, and takes advantage of the historical fact that the New England colonists were prone to compare men of political power to biblical figures. (For example, Winthrop the first Governor was compared to Moses and Nehemiah, and Cotton the minister was compared to Abraham, Joshuah, and John.) By actually living with minister Dimmesdale on the pretext of treating his psychosomatic condition, Chillingworth creates the sacrosanct family, insinuates domestic ideology, behaves within Dimmesdale's psyche as a sacred father, or punishing super-ego, and thus preys on Dimmesdale with the Oedipal sense of guilt. Psychologically, the old physician confronts the minister as if he were blaming the latter for committing a deed likely to rouse the homophobic, i. e., forming an immature umbilical relation with Hester, mother-goddess-like self-willed woman. To prevent the patriarchy he stands on from backsliding into the pre-Oedipal Eros, and to prevent the basis of patriarchy, i. e., the compulsory heterosexuality, from breaking down, Chillingworth acts as the Law enforcing/castrating father. However, the tactics Chillingworth employs are not flawless in terms of the gender stability he has to maintain. In his observing eyes, Dimmesdale appears to reside in an enviable patriarchic family-the family composed of the minister, Hester, and Pearl, the family exclusive of outsiders. According to Freud's theory of narcissism, Dimmesdale is, first, the model the physician wants to imitate, second, his opponent/persecutor, and third, his homosexual lover. This means that the male gender-apparently based on Emersonian self-reliant man-becomes destabilized, and that the more closely Chillingworth approaches his former state of patriarch, the more difficult it becomes for him to reach his ultimate goal of regaining his masculinity, the gender identity supposedly established on the compulsory heterosexual norm. The author detected the common anxiety shared by the intelligent men of the seventeenth century like Chillingworth and the men of power of the nineteenth century like Hawthorne: the former were fearful of the antinomians who, like Hester, claimed thorough individualism and direct communication with God, and the latter were cautious against those who were influenced by the effect of revolutions in European countries around 1848, and those who imbibed radical concepts of freedom, including proto-feminism and the dismantling of the family. The author lets Chillingworth protect the patriarchy and its foundation of the heterosexual norm and sexism-in a paradoxical way-by robbing him of heterosexuality, letting him remain a bachelor, and uniting him homosexually with Dimmesdale. Chillingworth's homosexual stance is not in conflict with the American Way, i. e., with the cause of preserving the androcentric society, because the heterosexual and the homosexual alike are prone to strive to maintain patriarchy. Punishing and loving the minister, and thus paradoxically placing himself in the American Way, i. e., the patriarchal consensus, Chillingworth barely finds his raison d'etre by forging the Oedipal space of the pseudo-patriarchal-family together with the minister.

著者

小林 信彦 Nobuhiko KOBAYASHI 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.27, no.1, pp.169-189, 2001-07

---

As it is difficult for people in trouble to make preparations for attaining buddhahood, a specialist buddha called Baisajyaguru appears. He removes obstacles such as desease or poverty in order to help people prepare for becoming buddhas. In China he is called Yao-shih and his activities are limited to medical help. He is the ultimate phisysian with supernatural power. Dreaming of eternal life, the Chinese expect him to langthen life. This idea of Yao-shih was brought to Japan in Nara Period and priests chanted the Yao-shih-ching when emperors were in critical condition. On the other hand, the Japanese who were not interested in becoming buddhas paid no attention to his primary function to help people become buddhas.

著者

小林 信彦 Nobuhiko KOBAYASHI 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学人間科学 (ISSN:09170227)

巻号頁・発行日

no.20, pp.55-79, 2000-12

---

In Japan there are many mountains on which images of Yakusi 藥師 are found. Bhaisajyaguru, the Indian counterpart of Yakusi, however, has nothing to do with mountains, which are favourate places of Japanese kamis 神. Yakusi has been worshipped by the Japanese as one of kamis, as is suggested by a verse in the Bussokusekika 佛足石歌.

著者

山川 偉也 Hideya YAMAKAWA 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

国際文化論集 (ISSN:09170219)

巻号頁・発行日

no.21, pp.269-292, 2000-03

---

Investigating into the reality Parmenides the Eleatic philosopher drew a clear line between δοξα (belief) and αληθεια (truth) in his Πε〓ιψυσεω〓 (On the Nature). The fact immediately reminds us the distinction between samvrtisatya (conventional truth) and paramarthatya (absolute truth) which advocated and developed by Nagarjuna the founder of Madyamika (the Middle-Way School) philosophy. The similarity of their Denkmotiv suggests a significant parallelism between two great philosophers' Denkformen about the reality and time.

著者

平井 啓之 村田 全 山川 偉也 Hiroyuki HIRAI Tamotsu MURATA Hideya YAMAKAWA 桃山学院大学文学部 桃山学院大学文学部 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学人間科学 (ISSN:09170227)

巻号頁・発行日

no.3, pp.p1-110, 1992-03

著者

山川 偉也 Hideya YAMAKAWA 桃山学院大学文学部

雑誌

国際文化論集 = INTERCULTURAL STUDIES (ISSN:09170219)

巻号頁・発行日

no.15, pp.31-60, 1997-02-20

著者

Robinson T.M. 山川 偉也 T. M. Robinson Hideya Yamakawa University of Toronto 桃山学院大学文学部 University of Toronto St.Andrew's University

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学キリスト教論集 (ISSN:0286973X)

巻号頁・発行日

no.33, pp.261-273, 1997

著者

日下 隆平 Ryuhei Kusaka 桃山学院大学文学部

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 = ST.ANDREW'S UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF THE RESEARCH INSTITUTE (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.29, no.1, pp.1-14, 2003-07-15

---

In recent years, there has been a growing inclination to re-examine the nineteenth-century Celtic Revival in colonial England. The goal of this study is to discuss the meaning of Celtic Revival through the work of William Butler Yeats. He was a distinguished figure of this movement and a descendant of Anglo-Irish family. He felt the necessity to reconcile the Protestant Ascendancy and the Irish Catholic tradition in his mind. Yeats wrote a famous essay in which he expressed his response to On the Studies of Celtic Literature by Matthew Arnold. Arnold’s writing was important to Yeats because he mystified the Celtic character and introduced the Celtic idea as a differentiating fact between Ireland and England. Arnold attempted to bring about ‘healing measure’ by blending the delicacy and spirituality of the Celtic peoples with ‘Philistinism’of British middle-class. The mystification of the Celt becomes, in effect, the romanticizing of the Irish Catholic in Revivalists. Yeats tried to discover an aristocratic element within the Protestant Ascendancy and to associate this with the spiritual aristocracy of the Catholic and Celtic peasantry in his mind. In the first chapter, the Irish identity under colonialism will be examined. In the second chapter, Arnold’s Celtic essay will be discussed. He admitted the femininity and the spirituality of Irish Celt into the British character. In the last chapter, I will examine Yeats’s prose based on the Celtic material. He knew from O’Grady’s writing that there was the bardic tradition in Ireland. The bard (in Irish file or ollamh) was ‘highly trained in the use of a polished literary medium.’ The monks and even the abbot in the monastery are afraid of a wandering poet’s rhyme in ‘The Crucifixion of the Outcast.’ This is derived from the legend that people in the old Gaelic society were afraid of the satire of the file poet. Finally, his attempt to ennoble the Irish peasantry, as represented in the Irish folklore and legend, can be accounted for by the same logic that Arnold admitted the Celtic sensibility into the national character. This is, at the same time, true of his Ireland he invented in Celtic Revival.

著者

Kusen 深見 純生(訳) Sumio FUKAMI 桃山学院大学文学部

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 = ST.ANDREW'S UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF THE RESEARCH INSTITUTE (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.26, no.3, pp.91-105, 2001-03-15

著者

山川 偉也 Hideya Yamakawa 桃山学院大学文学部 St. Andrew's University

雑誌

桃山学院大学経済経営論集 = ST. ANDREW'S UNIVERSITY ECONOMIC AND BUSINESS REVIEW (ISSN:02869721)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.33, no.4, pp.281-305, 1992-03-01

著者

日下 隆平 Ryuhei KUSAKA 桃山学院大学文学部

雑誌

英米評論 = English Review (ISSN:09170200)

巻号頁・発行日

no.16, pp.197-218, 2001-12-20

著者

赤瀬 雅子 Masako AKASE 桃山学院大学文学部

雑誌

桃山学院大学人間科学 = HUMAN SCIENCES REVIEW, St. Andrew's University (ISSN:09170227)

巻号頁・発行日

no.21, pp.49-59, 2001-07-10

著者

日下 隆平 Ryuhei Kusaka 桃山学院大学文学部

雑誌

英米評論 = ENGLISH REVIEW (ISSN:09170200)

巻号頁・発行日

no.17, pp.3-28, 2002-12-20

---

At the fin de siecle, the Celtic Revival was complex and multifaced movement, comprising a variety of approaches to the representation of Irish identity. In this paper, the influence of Matthew Arnold on the Celtic Revival will be mainly explored. He created a stereotyped image of the Celt as a “shy, sensitive and imaginative” race. The Irish people have greatly changed their image from what they used to be in the eighteenth century. The image of Irishman in England can be traced back to the age of Edmund Spenser and Jonathan Swift. Yahoo represents the savage people whom Jonathan Swift described in Gulliver's Travels (1726). The description of the Irishman as Yahoo was found in the cartoons and writings of the eighteenth century. Eiren, on the other hand, was a gloomy and beautiful woman, with long and dark hair. She was often drawn in the cartoons of the magazines at 1890s. The inclination for nostalgic representations of the Celt could be found in the figure of Eiren. In the first section, the discovery of the Celtic motif will be discussed in connection with the rise of Irish nationalism in the middle of the eighteenth century. The traditional Irish symbols such as the Celtic Cross, harp, and Irish wolfhound, will be referred in the poems and paintings. In the second section, I will deal with the image of the Irishman as Yahoo, in Gulliver's Travels and the cartoons of Punch. In the last section, the Celtic Revival and the transformation of the Irish image at the end of century will be discussed. The figure of Erin suggested Irish femininity itself. This figure of Erin cannot be separable from Arnold's opinion. As a critic points out, the Celt is a construct based on oppositions such as wild and tame, savage and civilized, or idealist and utilitarian. In this paper, an ambivalence in English attitude towards the Celt will be also explored.

著者

出原 博明 Hiroaki DEHARA 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学人間科学 (ISSN:09170227)

巻号頁・発行日

no.22, pp.31-55, 2001-12

---

Detachment is particular to Kyoshi's attitude in telling stories. He hardly ever reveals himself. However, this short story has one scene in which he reveals himself. The scene is that of the red camellias. The story is a love story of 75 year old Kyoshi, the narrator, and 21 year old Eiko. At its early stage the story presents the scene of Kyoshi sitting in the garden of his house, watching the red camelliias in full bloom there. Those red flowers begin to dance in the air around him. He feels as if he were surrounded by young women and loses himself in ecstasy. Suggesting something very erotic, this scene could be evidence of 75 year old Kyoshi still keeping the fire of eros burning in him. He falls in love with Eiko when she calls on him for the first time with one of his disciples. Then he takes up a positive attitude. He produces a number of haiku suggestive of his love for her. He even gives the doll named Tsubakiko to her as a present. Let me compare this story with Yasunari Kawabata's novella The Sound of the Mountain, whose theme is also an old man's love for a young woman. Both stories are set in Kamakura, a few years after the end of World War II. Both Kyoshi and Kawabata were citizens of Kamakura. In Kawabata's story, 62 year old Shingo, the narrator, is shocked to discover a truth by means of thorough psychoanalysis of a very strange dream he had. The truth he digs out is that there are eros and sexual desire latent at the bottom of his love for 20 year old Kikuko, his daughter-in-law. He suffers a lot from this morally. He examines himself minutely in view of his conscience, which Kyoshi never does. Shingo is baffled and feels uneasy about his date with Kikuko. He has qualms of conscience, which Kyoshi would never have in the same situation. Kyoshi has a lot more nerve. He is beyond the weakness and susceptibility of the modern Japanese intelligentsia which Shingo represents. Kyoshi is bolder, stronger-minded, primitivistic, rooted in Nature itself, little influenced by modern Western thought. Kyoshi prefers the red camellia above all, which is symbolic of vitality, the fire of life, something primitive. A hundred haiku of his take the red camellia for their motif. In this story Eiko also makes a haiku: "I fear the naked tree among the cherry blossoms at night." The naked tree seems to symbolize something erotic, which attracts and at the same time scares Eiko, a virgin. She doubtless senses Kyoshi's erotic feelings for her. The things I point out above reveal Kyoshi's character. Kyoshi is quite different from Shingo who is a typical modern Japanese intellectual. He is a sort of sphinx in modern Japan. (With his strong will to live, Kyoshi took care of himself and sustained his reputation as one of the greatest haiku-poets until he died at the age of 85, while Kawabata, Nobel prize winner, committed suicide at the age of 73.)

著者

中村 祥子 Shoko Nakamura 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

英米評論 (ISSN:09170200)

巻号頁・発行日

no.19, pp.133-163, 2005-02

---

The short story, "The Doom of the Griffiths" was written by Elizabeth Gaskell in 1857, more than one year after her former fictional creation, "The Poor Clare". The story presents a conflict between two types of landlords ; a landlord who may prosper and one who may not. This is the author's first treatment of an issue that becomes a major theme in her later works. "The Doom of the Griffiths" is a tale about the fall of the Griffiths family, people of the landlord class. At the beginning of the story is an explanation of why the Griffiths were doomed to fall. When Owen Glendower, a Welsh hero in the Middle Ages, rebelled against Henry IV, an ancestor of the Griffiths named Rhys ap Gryfydd betrayed Owen, who believed in him. It means that Rhys ap Gryfydd was shrewd, and that he tried to side with those most likely to be victorious. In great anger, Owen, who was said to be able to use magic, cursed the traitor and his descendants. As a result, members of the Griffiths family were doomed by Owen to fail and disappear after nine generations. Owen prophesied that at that time a son should slay his father, the ninth Griffiths. After this brief explanation the main plot begins. Two generations are described ; the ninth named Robert Griffiths and his son, Owen Griffiths. They are father and son, but are quite different in manners. Robert is the second son and inherits the estate of the Griffiths as a result of his elder brother's death. He is gifted and able to create his own future. On the other hand, Owen is the only son who is an heir to the estate from the moment of his birth. He has no choice but to succeed his father. Therefore, he is passive and does not try to take a step forward, even though he becomes under the necessity of earning a living. Their attitudes toward marriage also differ. The father gets married to a rich attorney's daughter after he inherited his family's estate. And after his first wife, who is Owen's mother, died, he marrys again a beautiful young widow with a little boy named Robert, who, coincidentally, has his stepfather's name. The son, on the other hand, secretly gets married to the beautiful daughter of a man who works as a half farmer and half fisherman. The girl's name is Nest. They have a baby named Owen. Because the young couple cannot make a living, the wife and their baby live with her father in his cottage. Owen frequently and surreptitiously comes to the house from his father's manor house. The wife's father, who is a tenant of the Griffiths estate, endures this irregular situation, believing that his daughter will be Lady Griffiths in the future. Robert's new wife schemes to drive Owen out of the mansion and make her child Robert inherit the family's estate. As a result of her scheming, her husband becomes estranged from his son and begins to favor his stepson. One day she tries to irreparably break the relationship between Robert and his biological son to make sure of her biological son's inheritance, and she exposes Owen's secret marriage to her husband, lying and insinuating that Nest is a prostitute. The angry father goes to his son's secret home to require him to separate from his wife, and snatches the little Owen from Owen's arms to throw the baby back at Nest. As a result, the baby falls to the floor and dies. At last, Owen decides to leave his father's mansion for ever to live with his wife in a big city, earning his bread. It is, however, too late. After some troubles, the father moves into action. He and his son are placed in a situation in which they struggle on the edge of a precipice. A push of the son to escape from the father's grip causes the father to fall off the cliff, to hit his head against the edge of a boat, and to die. Though it seems that this is a fulfillment of the prophecy, the author denies the supernatural element, emphasizing that the father's death is accidental. As a squire, Robert, a person who is shrewd and selfish like his ancestor Rhys ap Gryfydd, prospers, but he is also very cruel, while Owen, a passive liberal, is disqualified as a landlord. Through the story, the author is critical of the father. The last of the story deals with Owen, his wife, and her father, who should leave the country before the dead body of the squire is found. They venture out on a stormy sea to disappear into the night. The author partly suggests that the three are shipwrecked and die. She, however, leaves room for another interpretation. The three might safely arrive in Liverpool, where Owen could "gain a livelihood by his own exertions." The author accepts Owen's way of living when he leaves the status of a landlord. That is the reason that Owen is the younger of the two central characters. It is important that the name of the second son Roger in Wives and Daughters, who is Robert's successor, has the initial "R", and that of the elder son Osborne in the same novel, who is Owen's successor, has also the initial "O". It means that "The Doom of the Griffiths" developed into Wives and Daughters.