著者

藤野 敦子

出版者

JAPAN SOCIETY FOR GENDER STUDIES

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.2007, no.10, pp.27-40, 2007-09-22 (Released:2010-03-17)

参考文献数

32

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The elimination of child labor is an important policy concern in many developing countries.In today's era of globalization, the child labor problem is not necessarily perceived as one that is unique to developing countries; advanced countries must also share concern for this issue.Advanced countries have also once undergone the struggle against child labor on their path to advancement. Their experience may serve as a guide to its eradication in developing countries.In this paper, the author examines the history of child labor in Japan, taking into considerations gender differences. Japan is rather different from other advanced countries in terms of how its economic development has taken place and the changes in family structure and gender relations. The historical lessons of Japan may be able to provide some policy implications for some Asian countries whose child labor problems can be considered as relating to gender bias.In Japan, there is a typical view of children according to which “children are treasures”, as seen in the Japanese poetry of Yamanoue no Okura. Some researchers indicate that Japan's industrialization did not lead to extensive use of child labor, in contrast with the British cotton-spinning industry, because of such unique family values. There are extremely few studies purely focused on child labor itself in Japan.However, we cannot overlook the fact that there seems to be a gender gap. In the Edo era, destitute families were officially permitted to sell their daughters as prostitutes to licensed brothels. Many girls went out and worked as nursemaids (komori) to support their families and to reduce the number of mouths to feed at home. In the Meiji era, many girls from poor peasant families became cheap laborers in factories of industries such as silk reeling and spinning. Despite rapid modernization, their employment conditions remained primitive and their recruitment was no more than a form of human trafficking. Thus, the girls in particular, have been involved in child labor throughout history. We stress that the child labor problem in Japan could be considered as one of gender.In fact, although the twenty-first century has arrived, problems of child labor are still persist in Japan. The problems are particularly noticeable in terms of the commercial exploitation of sex. The Japanese example will show that the consideration of the gender perspective is essential when formulating policies for the eradication of child labor.

著者

多賀 太

出版者

JAPAN SOCIETY FOR GENDER STUDIES

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.2002, no.5, pp.1-14, 2002-09-07 (Released:2010-08-04)

参考文献数

81

著者

伊藤 公雄

出版者

JAPAN SOCIETY FOR GENDER STUDIES

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.2007, no.10, pp.49-53, 2007

著者

鈴木 万里

出版者

JAPAN SOCIETY FOR GENDER STUDIES

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.2007, no.10, pp.17-26, 2007-09-22 (Released:2010-08-04)

参考文献数

21

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The image of women in English literature changed dramatically in mid 18th century England. Christian tradition had long regarded women as ‘Eve's daughters’, which meant that women were invariably evil and harmful. By the end of the 18th century, however, women described in novels generally became good, modest, innocent, and vulnerable. The new trend in this image of the woman was initiated by Samuel Richardson's Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded (1740), often described as ‘the first novel’ in English literature. Its morality and didacticism established the respectability of the form. Its popularity transcended the boundaries of class, gender, and educational differences. It had such a great an impact on society that it brought about a shift in the dominant expectations for female characters in subsequent novels throughout the century; young, beautiful, good, chaste, submissive, and vulnerable. It also represented gender positions and politics in modern indUstrialized patriarchal society; men provided with wealth, being superior, and women deprived and dependent, being inferior. It highly appraised woman's chastity of the kind which enabled a servant girl to become a lady, opening the way for heroines to engage in hypergamy. Consequently, the novel inspired considerable controversy over femininity and inter-class marriage. Two major novelists separately expressed an antagonistic view in the form of fiction. One is Henry Fielding, who published An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews (1741); the other is Eliza Haywood, who wrote Anti-Pamela; or, Feign'd Innocence Detected (1741). Both of them criticized Pamela and her ‘virtue’, although they focused on comparatively different aspects of the novel. The former held a conservative point of view, in which Pamela was thought of as a potential threat to the stability of society. The latter held a feminist point of view; her heroine tries to undermine the male-dominant society in which the relationship between man and woman is based on exchange. It delineates the material realities of women's lives as well as their difficulties in pursuing financial security. The dispute caused by Pamela tells us that a new ideology of femininity was being constructed in the middle of the century. This article will shed light on this process as well as its social background and the changing values it epitomised.

著者

野口 芳子

出版者

JAPAN SOCIETY FOR GENDER STUDIES

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.2005, no.8, pp.1-12, 2005-09-01 (Released:2010-03-17)

参考文献数

35

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Wenn man fragt, wie man sich Hexen vorstellen soll, antworten die meisten Menschen, Hexen seien böse, hässliche alte Frauen. Sie hätten eine Adlernase und rote Augen, flogen mit dem Besen durch die Luft und verwandelten Menschen in Steine. Diese Hexenvorstellung wird teilweise stark von dem Hexenbild der Grimmschen Märchen beeinflusst.In diesem Aufsatz soll versucht werden, Hexenbilder aus zwei verschiedenen Gattungen der Volksliteratur, namlich der Märchen und Sagen aus der Sammlung der Briider Grimm darzustellen.In den Grimmschen Märchen treten Hexen insbesondere als Stereotypen des bösen auf, wie z.B. Stiefmiitter. Durch Zauber verwandeln sie Konigssohne in Muffle, Tiere und Steine. Den Verwandlungszauber wenden Hexen allerdings hauptsdchlich bei Mannern an, die sie aber nur fiir eine Weile in andere Wesen verwandeln und die immer vom Erloser entzaubert werden. Die bösen Taten der Hexen, die Kinder fressen, Menschen und Tiere vergiften und toten, werden in verschiedenen Variationen dargestellt.Das Bild der Hexe wird hier als das der “dsslichen alten Frau” fixiert. Schone junge Mddchen treten also in den Grimmschen Mdrchen niemals als Hexen auf.In den “Deutschen Sagen” erscheinen ebenso nur alte Frauen als Hexen. Eine alte Frau zeigt einer jungen Frau die Rezeptur der Zauberkrauter, um ihren Mann zuriickzurufen. Eine andere alte Frau beschwort Unwetter und Hagel durch Wetterzauber herauf. Eine alte Witwe schlieSt einen Vertrag mit dem Teufel, weil ihr Leben unertraglich ist. Alle Hexen sind hier also gleichzeitig auch alte Frauen.Erotische Hexen wie in den Gemalden von Diirer oder Baldung Grien, und in der Hochliteratur von Goethe, findet man hier nicht.Ob die Vorstellung von Hexen bei den Briidern Grimm sich von anderen Werken der Volksliteratur, wie z.B. in den von Leander Petzoldt herausgegeben Sagen, unterscheidet, muBte noch genauer untersucht werden. Hier wird versucht zu verdeutlichen, inwieweit das Hexenbild der Volksliteratur die Angeklagte der, “Hexen” in der Fruhen Neuzeit in Europa widerspiegelt.

著者

服部 幸雄

出版者

日本ジェンダー学会

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.2004, no.7, pp.93-95, 2004-09-01 (Released:2010-03-17)

著者

海老原 暁子

出版者

JAPAN SOCIETY FOR GENDER STUDIES

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.2001, no.4, pp.3-16, 2001

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Looking at feminist fictional writings since the time of Charlotte Gilman's Herland from the perspective of how they dealt with the issue of reproduction, one can find a group of works using unisexual reproduction as the central theme or as an important motif. This paper examines one of them, <I>Marginal</I> (1985), a girls'manga (comic) by Moto Hagio. Girls' manga are an important source of insight into Japanese women's views on their gender, and this paper outlines the history of girls' manga in comparison with the boys' counterpart, which provides a clue as to what made Hagio use the theme of unisexual reproduction in<I>Marginal</I>, in which she attempted to examine the concept of maternity.<BR>In the first phase of manga's development from the late 1960's up to the 1980's, both girls' and boy's manga were based on illusions about the opposite sex. Boys in girls' comics were either dashing gentlemen or handsome rebels aching for maternal love, whereas boys' comics were interested in girls only as the object of the macho hero's desire. However, from the late 1980's, while Boys' manga stayed with its fantasies of women as mere recipients of the male sex drive, girls' manga started to see men in a more sober light. The gap between the ideal of equal partnership and reality began to feature strongly, and themes such as homosexuality, transsexualism and transvestism have been given a serious examination.<BR>This shift was a result of a significant change in Japanese women's view on reproduction. As women acquired education and financial independence, they rejected the notion that a woman's happiness lies in love, marriage and childbearing ; the link between marriage and motherhood was broken. Stories centring on the theme on unisexual reproduction appeared in girls' manga amidst this tidal change.<BR><I>Marginal</I> is a sci-fi manga set in 2999A.D., when Earth is a polluted and diseased planet long deserted by most humans after a pandemic viral infection 700 hundred years earlier made all women infertile. A company that runs an economic empire across the solar system maintains experimental colonies on Earth where no babies can be born and all inhabitants are men. The company supplies the colonies with test-tube children through a pseudo-religious system, but inhabitants live under a dark shadow of apocalyptic pessimism. Hagio examines maternity in an imaginary world where, in the absence of women, motherhood is artificial and there are no heterosexual relationships.<BR>A scientist who has been running illegal reproductive experiments in a hideout on Earth is killed by the company, and a product of his experiments, a telepathic hermaphrodite with the ability to tune into other people's dreams and wishes, survives the attack and encounters colony men. The psychic child causes a catastrophic flood when he responds to the wishes of colony dwellers who dream their doomed world to end, but in a dramatic climax, he empathizes with the Earth's dream of ancient blue seas that nurtured life, a dream of life.<BR>The ambiguous ending of<I>Marginal</I> seems to support conventional praise of maternity, but here the hope of regeneration comes not from the child's ability to conceive but through restoration of the Earth's productive potential. Hagio sees maternity as something more fundamental than the materialistic notion of baby-making; to her, restoration of the fertility of the Earth, the source of life itself, is the paramount concern.

著者

橋木 郁子

出版者

JAPAN SOCIETY FOR GENDER STUDIES

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.2000, no.3, pp.45-57, 2000-08-31 (Released:2010-03-17)

参考文献数

38

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Die Veröffentlichung der Tagebücher von Thomas Mann hat es der Forschung ermöglicht, seine Werke aus der Sicht seiner Homosexualität neu zu interpretieren. Seither geht kaum eine Arbeit über den Autor an seinem sexuellen Problematik vorbei. Im vorliegenden Aufsatz, der auf dieser Forschun gsrichtung basiert, wurde versucht, zuzeigen, daß sich sein Ich durch die Auseinander setzung mit seiner Homosexualitätent wickelt hat.Der am 19. Jahrhundert beginnende Dikurs um die gleichgeschlechtliche Liebe hat zurGleichsetzung von Homosexualität und Verweib-bzw. Verweichlichung geführt. Dadurch waren die Betroffenen dem fatalen Verdacht ausgesezt, homosexuell zu sein, heilße, kein Mann zu sein. In den friiheren Novellen hat Thomas Mann seine homoerotischen Gefüthle als unmännlich vernichtet, indem er die unmännlichen Protagonistenin den Tod treibt. Das zeigt zum einen, wie tief sich Thomas Mann in dasGender-System (männlich/weiblich) verwickelt, und zugleich daß er Männlichkeit alswertvoller als Weiblichkeit betrachtet.Auch in seiner politischen Schriften beschäftigt er sich mit der Problematik der Männlichkeit.In (Betrachtungen eines Unpolitischen) (1918) wurden die weiblich assoziertenAusdrücke als Schimpfwort verwendet, um seinen Gegner “Frankreich”und “Demokratie” zu entwürdigen. Dabei identifiziert sich Mann mit Deutschland, dasals mdnnliches Prinzip hochges chatzt wird. Hier, alizu klar geht es um seinen Antifeminismusund Männlichkeitskult.In seiner Rede (Von deutscher Republild) (1922) hat Mann die deutsche Jugend aufgefordert, die gefahrdete Republik zu retten. Inzwischen hatte sich sein Wandel vonkoservativ-nationalistisch zu fortschrittlich-demokratisch vollzogen, nicht aber in seinem Männlichkeitskult. Mit der Hilfe von Hans Blüher, des Theoretikers der Homosexualität, hat Mann auch in der Rede die Basis der Republik als homoerotisch-männlich verstanden. Vor dem Hintergrund der Worte Goethes, daß das Männliche der reinereund schönere Ausdruck des Menschen sei, konnte er seine Homosexualitat rechtfertigen.Allerdings verrät sein fanatischer Kult für die Männlichkeit einerseits auf ironischer Weise die große Schwierigkeit, mit der er seine Weiblichkeit überwindet, andererseitszeigt er den harten Druck der männlichen Gesellschaft, unter dem Thomas Mann also Homosexueller sein Leben fiihren mußte. In diesem Sinne, -das mag banal klingen, war Thomas Mann ein Opfer der Genderideologie.

著者

波多野 豪

出版者

JAPAN SOCIETY FOR GENDER STUDIES

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.1999, no.2, pp.17-29, 1999-08-31 (Released:2010-03-17)

参考文献数

6

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Since Ellen Swallow had pointed out that the field of ecology involved the humansociety, ecology has been not only one target of studies but also issues of socialmovement. Nature is being changed by action of human beings. The equilibrium ofnatural life system is not kept automatically only by itself. This reveals that the present environment problem brings out not only exhaustion of natural resources but crisis of sustainability.As the environmental destruction and the pollutions are closely related with thesocial economic structure and the discriminatory social structure, the socially weakpeoples are suffering from damages at any time. For example, the environmental orfood pollutions have done damages to the peoples who were forced to live under them.Consequently, it is natural to think that ecology is a target of social movement. But why do women often put the ecology into practice?The concept of gender gives a very nice framework to analyse social phenomainvolving ecological science. But we cannot answer the solution only by the conceptof gender.So this paper does not aim to analyse or redefine ecological movement on theviewpoint of gender, but to clarify the gender bias observed in the field of ecology. And also this paper tries to describe the process how to establish gender-free society, reflecting on the structure of ecological movement promoted inevitably by mainlyfemale peoples.

著者

川島 典子

出版者

日本ジェンダー学会

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

no.16, pp.27-39, 2013

著者

香川 孝三

出版者

JAPAN SOCIETY FOR GENDER STUDIES

雑誌

日本ジェンダー研究 (ISSN:18841619)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.2003, no.6, pp.27-40, 2003

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There are important problems about the public pension paid to female persons. The Japan pension system is a three-tiered, national pension scheme, employees' pension insurance and corporate pension scheme. The former two public pensions will be discussed in this article.<BR>The basic pension benefit is paid by the national pension scheme, while the additional pension benefits are paid through the employees' pension insurance scheme. The insurance premimum for these schemes is decided by the amount of wages or salaries. So the public pension has a strong connection with the wage system in Japan. The amount of wages is determined to sustain a worker's family including husband, wife and some children. That is to say, the wage system is based on the family unit. Therefore the public pension scheme is also based on the family unit. But it should be based on the individual unit in the future. For these purposes the wage system should be designed on the individual job and work performances.<BR>The Japanese model unit of a household is based on a working husband and housewife. The housewife is not required to pay any insurance premium by herself if she gets less than 1.3 million yen as total income per a year. But she can get the basic pension benefit. It seems unfair for female persons who must pay the insurance premium by themselves. It is necessary for her to bear the cost of the insurance scheme. It is now considered at the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare whether to impose the burden on the housewife or her husband.<BR>When a housewife is divorced, she will be unable to maintain a living only with the basic pension benefit. She cannot use the additional pension benefit because it belongs to her ex-husband. So it is now planned to divide the additional pension benefits between husband and wife at the time of divorce.<BR>The limit of total income being less than 1.3 million yen per a year prevents female persons working in their full abilities.<BR>Female wages are in general lower than those of the male though wage discrimination on the basis of sex is subject to criminal penalties under Article 4 of the Fair Labour Standards Act providing that an employer shall not engage in discriminatory treatment of a woman as compared with a man with respect to wages by reason of the worker being a woman. On average female wages are about 60% of male wages. This brings about lower pension benefits for female persons.<BR>In Japan wages are composed of three parts: basic wages, various kinds of allowances and bonuses. Basic wages are decided on age, continuous service years, work ability, level of performance etc. There is no uniform level of wages according to the type of job or work. Therefore it is very difficult to apply the principle of "the same work, the same pay" to Japanese establishments. But proper proportionate wage differences should be kept between regular and part- time workers. This is a prerequisite for making a scheme of public pension based on the individual unit, not on the household unit.