著者

Kei Fujiwara Miho Yanagisawa Shin-ichiro M. Nomura

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.10, pp.43-48, 2014 (Released:2014-08-07)

参考文献数

38

被引用文献数

1 15

---

Toward reconstitution of living cells by artificial cells technology, it is critical process to understand the differences between mixtures of biomolecules and living cells. For the aim, we have developed procedures for preparation of an additive-free cell extract (AFCE) and for concentrating biomacromolecules in artificial cells. In this review, we introduce our recent progress to reconstitute intracellular environments in vitro and in artificial cells.

著者

Harshita Sharma Fumihito Ohtani Parmila Kumari Deepti Diwan Naoko Ohara Tetsuya Kobayashi Miho Suzuki Naoto Nemoto Yoshibumi Matsushima Koichi Nishigaki

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.10, pp.55-62, 2014 (Released:2014-09-06)

参考文献数

32

被引用文献数

1

---

Familial clustering without any prerequisite knowledge becomes often necessary in Behavioral Science, and forensic studies in case of great disasters like Tsunami and earthquake requiring body-identification without any usable information. However, there has been no well-established method for this purpose although conventional ones such as short tandem repeats (STR) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), which might be applied with toil and moil to some extent. In this situation, we could find that the universal genome distance-measuring method genome profiling (GP), which is made up of three elemental techniques; random PCR, micro-temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (μTGGE), and computer processing for normalization, can do this purpose with ease when applied to mouse families. We also confirmed that the sequencing approach based on the ccgf (commonly conserved genetic fragment appearing in the genome profile) was not completely discriminative in this case. This is the first demonstration that the familial clustering can be attained without a priori sequence information to the level of discriminating strains and sibling relationships. This method can complement the conventional approaches in preliminary familial clustering.

著者

Takeshi Kawabata Yusuke Sugihara Yoshifumi Fukunishi Haruki Nakamura

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.9, pp.113-121, 2013 (Released:2013-08-07)

参考文献数

30

被引用文献数

8 23

---

A database for the 3D structures of available compounds is essential for the virtual screening by molecular docking. We have developed the LigandBox database (http://ligandbox.protein.osaka-u.ac.jp/ligandbox/) containing four million available compounds, collected from the catalogues of 37 commercial suppliers, and approved drugs and biochemical compounds taken from KEGG_DRUG, KEGG_COMPOUND and PDB databases. Each chemical compound in the database has several 3D conformers with hydrogen atoms and atomic charges, which are ready to be docked into receptors using docking programs. The 3D conformations were generated using our molecular simulation program package, myPresto. Various physical properties, such as aqueous solubility (LogS) and carcinogenicity have also been calculated to characterize the ADME-Tox properties of the compounds. The Web database provides two services for compound searches: a property/chemical ID search and a chemical structure search. The chemical structure search is performed by a descriptor search and a maximum common substructure (MCS) search combination, using our program kcombu. By specifying a query chemical structure, users can find similar compounds among the millions of compounds in the database within a few minutes. Our database is expected to assist a wide range of researchers, in the fields of medical science, chemical biology, and biochemistry, who are seeking to discover active chemical compounds by the virtual screening.

著者

Yuki Sudo Rikou Tanaka Toshitatsu Kobayashi Naoki Kamo Toshiyuki Kohno Chojiro Kojima

出版者

The Biophysical Society of Japan

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.7, pp.51-58, 2011 (Released:2011-06-18)

参考文献数

34

---

An approach of cell-free synthesis is presented for the functional expression of transmembrane proteins without the need of refolding. The transmembrane region of the pharaonis halobacterial transducer protein, pHtrII, was translated with various large soluble tags added (thioredoxin, glutathione S-transferase, green fluorescent protein and maltose binding protein). In this system, all fusion pHtrII were translated in a soluble fraction, presumably, forming giant micelle-like structures. The detergent n-dodecyl-β-D-maltoside was added for enhancing the solubilization of the hydrophobic region of pHtrII. The activity of the expressed pHtrII, having various tags, was checked using a pull-down assay, using the fact that pHtrII forms a signaling complex with pharaonis phoborhodopsin (ppR) in the membrane, as also in the presence of a detergent. All tagged pHtrII showed a binding activity with ppR. Interestingly, the binding activity with ppR was positively correlated with the molecular weight of the soluble tags. Thus, larger soluble tags lead to higher binding activities. We could show, that our approach is beneficial for the preparation of active membrane proteins, and is also potentially applicable for larger membrane proteins, such as 7-transmembrane proteins.

著者

Yuki Sudo Hiroyuki Terashima Rei Abe-Yoshizumi Seiji Kojima Michio Homma

出版者

The Biophysical Society of Japan

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.5, pp.45-52, 2009 (Released:2009-06-12)

参考文献数

25

被引用文献数

18 22

---

Flagellar motor proteins, MotA/B and PomA/B, are essential for the motility of Escherichia coli and Vibrio alginolyticus, respectively. Those complexes work as a H+ and a Na+ channel, respectively and play important roles in torque generation as the stators of the flagellar motors. Although Asp32 of MotB and Asp24 of PomB are believed to function as ion binding site(s), the ion flux pathway from the periplasm to the cytoplasm is still unclear. Conserved residues, Ala39 of MotB and Cys31 of PomB, are located on the same sides as Asp32 of MotB and Asp24 of PomB, respectively, in a helical wheel diagram. In this study, a series of mutations were introduced into the Ala39 residue of MotB and the Cys31 residue of PomB. The motility of mutant cells were markedly decreased as the volume of the side chain increased. The loss of function due to the MotB(A39V) and PomB(L28A/C31A) mutations was suppressed by mutations of MotA(M206S) and PomA(L183F), respectively, and the increase in the volume caused by the MotB(A39V) mutation was close to the decrease in the volume caused by the MotA(M206S) mutation. These results demonstrate that Ala39 of MotB and Cys31 of PomB form part of the ion flux pathway and pore with Met206 of MotA and Leu183 of PomA in the MotA/B and PomA/B stator units, respectively.

著者

Rei Abe Yoshizumi Shiori Kobayashi Mizuki Gohara Kokoro Hayashi Chojiro Kojima Seiji Kojima Yuki Sudo Yasuo Asami Michio Homma

出版者

The Biophysical Society of Japan

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.9, pp.21-29, 2013 (Released:2013-02-05)

参考文献数

40

被引用文献数

2 2

---

Flagellar motors embedded in bacterial membranes are molecular machines powered by specific ion flows. Each motor is composed of a stator and a rotor and the interactions of those components are believed to generate the torque. Na+ influx through the PomA/PomB stator complex of Vibrio alginolyticus is coupled to torque generation and is speculated to trigger structural changes in the cytoplasmic domain of PomA that interacts with a rotor protein in the C-ring, FliG, to drive the rotation. In this study, we tried to overproduce the cytoplasmic loop of PomA (PomA-Loop), but it was insoluble. Thus, we made a fusion protein with a small soluble tag (GB1) which allowed us to express and characterize the recombinant protein. The structure of the PomA-Loop seems to be very elongated or has a loose tertiary structure. When the PomA-Loop protein was produced in E. coli, a slight dominant effect was observed on motility. We conclude that the cytoplasmic loop alone retains a certain function.

著者

Ken Nishikawa Akira R. Kinjo

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.10, pp.99-108, 2014 (Released:2014-12-17)

参考文献数

50

被引用文献数

1 12

---

We propose the cooperative model of phenotype-driven evolution, in which natural selection operates on a phenotype caused by both genetic and epigenetic factors. The conventional theory of evolutionary synthesis assumes that a phenotypic value (P) is the sum of genotypic value (G) and environmental deviation (E), P=G+E, where E is the fluctuations of the phenotype among individuals in the absence of environmental changes. In contrast, the cooperative model assumes that an evolution is triggered by an environmental change and individuals respond to the change by phenotypic plasticity (epigenetic changes). The phenotypic plasticity, while essentially qualitative, is denoted by a quantitative value F which is modeled as a normal random variable like E, but with a much larger variance. Thus, the fundamental equation of the cooperative model is given as P=G+F where F includes the effect of E. Computer simulations using a genetic algorithm demonstrated that the cooperative model realized much faster evolution than the evolutionary synthesis. This accelerated evolution was found to be due to the cumulative evolution made possible by a ratchet mechanism due to the epigenetic contribution to the phenotypic value. The cooperative model can well account for the phenomenon of genetic assimilation, which, in turn, suggests the mechanism of cumulative selection. The cooperative model may also serve as a theoretical basis to understand various ideas and phenomena of the phenotypedriven evolution such as genetic assimilation, the theory of facilitated phenotypic variation, and epigenetic inheritance over generations.

著者

Keisuke Fujita Mitsuhiro Iwaki

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.10, pp.69-75, 2014 (Released:2014-11-01)

参考文献数

36

---

Myosin V is a vesicle transporter that unidirectionally walks along cytoskeletal actin filaments by converting the chemical energy of ATP into mechanical work. Recently, it was found that myosin V force generation is a composition of two processes: a lever-arm swing, which involves a conformational change in the myosin molecule, and a Brownian search-and-catch, which involves a diffusive “search” by the motor domain that is followed by an asymmetric “catch” in the forward actin target such that Brownian motion is rectified. Here we developed a system that combines optical tweezers with DNA nano-material to show that the Brownian search-and-catch mechanism is the energetically dominant process at near stall force, providing 13 kBT of work compared to just 3 kBT by the lever-arm swing. Our result significantly reconsiders the lever-arm swinging model, which assumes the swing dominantly produces work (>10 kBT), and sheds light on the Brownian search-and-catch as a driving process.

著者

Masako Koyama Yoshiyuki Matsuura

出版者

The Biophysical Society of Japan

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.8, pp.145-150, 2012 (Released:2012-11-30)

参考文献数

24

被引用文献数

1 4

---

CRM1 (also known as exportin 1 or Xpo1) is the most versatile nuclear export receptor (exportin) that carries a broad range of proteins and ribonucleoproteins from the nucleus to the cytoplasm through the nuclear pore complex. The majority of the export substrates of CRM1 contain a short peptide sequence, so-called leucine-rich nuclear export signal (NES), which typically harbor four or five characteristically spaced hydrophobic residues. The transport directionality is determined by the small GTPase Ran and Ran-binding proteins that control the binding and dissociation of cargo. Here we review recent structural studies that advanced understanding of how NES is specifically recognized by CRM1 in the nucleus, and how NES is rapidly dissociated from CRM1 in the cytoplasm.

著者

Junko Kamiguri Noriko Tsuchiya Ruri Hidema Zenji Yatabe Masahiko Shoji Chihiro Hashimoto Robert Bernard Pansu Hideharu Ushiki

出版者

The Biophysical Society of Japan

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.8, pp.11-19, 2012 (Released:2012-01-17)

参考文献数

29

被引用文献数

2 2

---

The contraction process of living Vorticella sp. in polymer solutions with various viscosities has been investigated by image processing using a high-speed video camera. The viscosity of the external fluid ranges from 1 to 5 mPa·s for different polymer additives such as hydroxypropyl cellulose, polyethylene oxide, and Ficoll. The temporal change in the contraction length of Vorticella sp. in various macromolecular solutions is fitted well by a stretched exponential function based on the nucleation and growth model. The maximum speed of the contractile process monotonically decreases with an increase in the external viscosity, in accordance with power law behavior. The index values approximate to 0.5 and this suggests that the viscous energy dissipated by the contraction of Vorticella sp. is constant in a macromolecular environment.

著者

Junko Kamiguri Noriko Tsuchiya Ruri Hidema Masatoshi Tachibana Zenji Yatabe Masahiko Shoji Chihiro Hashimoto Robert Bernard Pansu Hideharu Ushiki

出版者

The Biophysical Society of Japan

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.8, pp.1-9, 2012 (Released:2012-01-17)

参考文献数

17

被引用文献数

3 3

---

The contraction process of living Vorticella sp. has been investigated by image processing using a high-speed video camera. In order to express the temporal change in the stalk length resulting from the contraction, a damped spring model and a nucleation and growth model are applied. A double exponential is deduced from a conventional damped spring model, while a stretched exponential is newly proposed from a nucleation and growth model. The stretched exponential function is more suitable for the curve fitting and suggests a more particular contraction mechanism in which the contraction of the stalk begins near the cell body and spreads downwards along the stalk. The index value of the stretched exponential is evaluated in the range from 1 to 2 in accordance with the model in which the contraction undergoes through nucleation and growth in a one-dimensional space.

著者

Ji-Chen Ho Chih-Hung Lee

出版者

The Biophysical Society of Japan

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.11, pp.17-24, 2015 (Released:2015-02-13)

参考文献数

70

被引用文献数

12 35

---

TRP channels are expressed in various cells in skin. As an organ system to border the host and environment, many nonneuronal cells, including epidermal keratinocytes and melanocytes, express several TRP channels functionally distinct from sensory processing. TRPV1 and TRPV3 in keratinocytes of the epidermis and hair apparatus inhibit proliferation, induce terminal differentiation, induce apoptosis, and promote inflammation. Activation of TRPV4, 6, and TRPA1 promotes regeneration of the severed skin barriers. TRPA1 also enhances responses in contact hypersensitivity. TRPCs in keratinocytes regulate epidermal differentiation. In human diseases with pertubered epidermal differentiation, the expression of TRPCs are altered. TRPMs, which contribute to melanin production in melanocytes, serve as significant prognosis markers in patients with metastatic melanoma. In summary, not only act in sensory processing, TRP channels also contribute to epidermal differentiation, proliferation, barrier integration, skin regeneration, and immune responses. In diseases with aberrant TRP channels, TRP channels might be good therapeutic targets.

著者

Saeko Yanaka Takamasa Ueno Kouhei Tsumoto Kenji Sugase

出版者

The Biophysical Society of Japan

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.11, pp.103-106, 2015 (Released:2015-04-18)

参考文献数

7

---

Structural fluctuation on microsecond to millisecond time scales has been reported to play an important role in proteins that undergo significant structural change during their expression of function. In these proteins, the structural change was obvious in the crystal structures. However, protein motions in solution could contribute to the function of proteins, even if no significant structural difference is observed in crystal structure of different states while they function. In this review, we introduce our recent report on the stabilization mechanism of human leukocyte antigen, and the possibility of fluctuation contributing to several biophysical properties of proteins.

著者

Hideki Itoh Kotaro Oyama Madoka Suzuki Shin’ichi Ishiwata

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.10, pp.109-119, 2014 (Released:2014-12-17)

参考文献数

41

被引用文献数

5 17

---

Temperature-sensitive Ca2+ dynamics occur primarily through transient receptor potential channels, but also by means of Ca2+ channels and pumps on the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. As such, cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) is re-equilibrated by changes in ambient temperature. The present study investigated the effects of heat pulses (heating duration: 2 s or 150 s) on [Ca2+]cyt in single WI-38 fibroblasts, which are considered as normal cells. We found that Ca2+ burst occurred immediately after short (2 s) heat pulse, which is similar to our previous report on HeLa cells, but with less thermosensitivity. The heat pulses originated from a focused 1455-nm infrared laser light were applied in the vicinity of cells under the optical microscope. Ca2+ bursts induced by the heat pulse were suppressed by treating cells with inhibitors for sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA) or inositol trisphosphate receptor (IP3R). Long (150 s) heat pulses also induced Ca2+ bursts after the onset of heating and immediately after re-cooling. Cells were more thermosensitive at physiological (37°C) than at room (25°C) temperature; however, at 37°C, cells were responsive at a higher temperature (ambient temperature+heat pulse). These results strongly suggest that the heat pulse-induced Ca2+ burst is caused by a transient imbalance in Ca2+ flow between SERCA and IP3R, and offer a potential new method for thermally controlling Ca2+-regulated cellular functions.

著者

David J. Castillo Shuichi Nakamura Yusuke V. Morimoto Yong-Suk Che Nobunori Kami-ike Seishi Kudo Tohru Minamino Keiichi Namba

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.9, pp.173-181, 2013 (Released:2013-12-26)

参考文献数

46

被引用文献数

4 34

---

The bacterial flagellar motor is made of a rotor and stators. In Salmonella it is thought that about a dozen MotA/B complexes are anchored to the peptidoglycan layer around the motor through the C-terminal peptidoglycan-binding domain of MotB to become active stators as well as proton channels. MotB consists of 309 residues, forming a single transmembrane helix (30-50), a stalk (51-100) and a C-terminal peptidoglycan-binding domain (101-309). Although the stalk is dispensable for torque generation by the motor, it is required for efficient motor performance. Residues 51 to 72 prevent premature proton leakage through the proton channel prior to stator assembly into the motor. However, the role of residues 72-100 remains unknown. Here, we analyzed the torque-speed relationship of the MotB(Δ72-100) motor. At a low speed near stall, this mutant motor produced torque at the wild-type level. Unlike the wild-type motor, however, torque dropped off drastically by slight decrease in external load and then showed a slow exponential decay over a wide range of load by its further reduction. Since it is known that the stator is a mechanosensor and that the number of active stators changes in a load-dependent manner, we interpreted this unusual torque-speed relationship as anomaly in load-dependent control of the number of active stators. The results suggest that residues 72-100 of MotB is required for proper load-dependent control of the number of active stators around the rotor.

著者

Yuji Furutani Tetsunari Kimura Kido Okamoto

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.9, pp.123-129, 2013 (Released:2013-08-10)

参考文献数

20

被引用文献数

5 10

---

Attenuated total reflectance (ATR)-FTIR spectroscopy has been widely used to probe protein structural changes under various stimuli, such as light absorption, voltage change, and ligand binding, in aqueous conditions. Time-resolved measurements require a trigger, which can be controlled electronically; therefore, light and voltage changes are suitable. Here we developed a novel, rapid buffer-exchange system for time-resolved ATR-FTIR spectroscopy to monitor the ligand- or ion-binding reaction of a protein. By using the step-scan mode (time resolution; 2.5 ms), we confirmed the completion of the buffer-exchange reaction within ~25 ms; the process was monitored by the infrared absorption change of a nitrate band at 1,350 cm-1. We also demonstrated the anion-binding reaction of a membrane protein, Natronomonas pharaonis halorhodopsin (pHR), which binds a chloride ion in the initial anion-binding site near the retinal chromophore. The formation of chloride- or nitrate-bound pHR was confirmed by an increase of the retinal absorption band at 1,528 cm-1. It also should be noted that low sample consumption (~1 μg of protein) makes this new method a powerful technique to understand ligand-protein and ion-protein interactions, particularly for membrane proteins.

著者

Takeshi Itabashi Jun Takagi Kazuya Suzuki Shin'ichi Ishiwata

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.9, pp.73-78, 2013 (Released:2013-06-08)

参考文献数

36

被引用文献数

3

---

For genome stability, the proper segregation of chromosomes is required. The exquisite process of chromosome segregation has charmed a lot of cell- and molecular biologists into watching what happens inside a mitotic cell and how each molecule contributes to this process for the accomplishment of accurate cell division1. The process to partition the duplicated genome to the daughter cells in each cell division is mediated by a self-organized structure called the mitotic spindle. It is well known that the mitotic spindle is a multi-component macromolecular machine composed of microtubules, molecular motors (kinesins, cytoplasmic dynein), and other regulatory molecules (microtubule-associated proteins, kinases, etc.). In recent years, most of the protein components of the mitotic spindle have been identified and the functions of these proteins have been characterized using molecular perturbations2,3. Thus, the mechanisms for spindle assembly and chromosome segregation are being revealed rapidly. However, the chromosome segregation machinery is poorly understood from the mechanical point of view, such as how the mitotic spindle within a cell responds to a variety of mechanical forces, originating from cell-cell interactions or environmental fluctuations. Recent advances in the controlled mechanical perturbation have indicated that the mitotic spindle possesses a structural pliability, size adaptability to the applied external forces, and a strong self-organizing ability. Mechanical perturbations revealed also the mechanochemical regulation of chromosome segregation machinery, which responds to the applied forces. Here, we discuss the current progress in the biophysical research on the architectural and functional dynamics of the mitotic spindle.

著者

Hajime Fukuoka Yuichi Inoue Akihiko Ishijima

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.8, pp.59-66, 2012 (Released:2012-03-03)

参考文献数

49

被引用文献数

8

---

Escherichia coli cells swim toward a favorable environment by chemotaxis. The chemotaxis system regulates the swimming behavior of the bacteria by controlling the rotational direction of their flagellar motors. Extracellular stimuli sensed by chemoreceptors are transduced to an intracellular signal molecule, phosphorylated CheY (CheY-P), that switches the rotational direction of the flagellar motors from counterclockwise (CCW) to clockwise (CW) or from CW to CCW. Many studies have focused on identifying the proteins involved in the chemotaxis system, and findings on the structures and intracellular localizations of these proteins have largely elucidated the molecular pathway. On the other hand, quantitative evaluations of the chemotaxis system, including the process of intracellular signaling by the propagation of CheY-P and the rotational switching of flagellar motor by binding of CheY-P molecules, are still uncertain. For instance, scientific consensus has held that the flagellar motors of an E. coli cell switch rotational direction asynchronously. However, recent work shows that the rotational switching of any two different motors on a single E. coli cell is highly coordinated; a sub-second switching delay between motors is clearly correlated with the relative distance of each motor from the chemoreceptor patch located at one pole of the cell. In this review of previous studies and our recent findings, we discuss the regulatory mechanism of the multiple flagellar motors on an individual E. coli cell and the intracellular signaling process that can be inferred from this coordinated switching.

著者

Tomoya Tsukazaki Osamu Nureki

出版者

日本生物物理学会

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.7, pp.129-133, 2011 (Released:2011-11-30)

参考文献数

26

被引用文献数

6

---

Protein transport across membranes is a fundamental and essential cellular activity in all organisms. In bacteria, protein export across the cytoplasmic membrane, driven by dynamic interplays between the protein-conducting SecYEG channel (Sec translocon) and the SecA ATPase, is enhanced by the proton motive force (PMF) and a membrane-integrated Sec component, SecDF. However, the structure and function of SecDF have remained unclear. We solved the first crystal structure of SecDF, consisting of a pseudo-symmetrical 12-helix transmembrane domain and two protruding periplasmic domains. Based on the structural features, we proposed that SecDF functions as a membrane-integrated chaperone, which drives protein movement without using the major energetic currency, ATP, but with remarkable cycles of conformational changes, powered by the proton gradient across the membrane. By a series of biochemical and biophysical approaches, several functionally important residues in the transmembrane region have been identified and our model of the SecDF function has been verified.

著者

Hiroyuki Iwamoto

出版者

The Biophysical Society of Japan

雑誌

BIOPHYSICS (ISSN:13492942)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.7, pp.21-28, 2011 (Released:2011-02-17)

参考文献数

30

被引用文献数

36

---

Insects, the largest group of animals on the earth, owe their prosperity to their ability of flight and small body sizes. The ability of flight provided means for rapid translocation. The small body size allowed access to unutilized niches. By acquiring both features, however, insects faced a new problem: They were forced to beat their wings at enormous frequencies. Insects have overcome this problem by inventing asynchronous flight muscle, a highly specialized form of striated muscle capable of oscillating at >1,000 Hz. This article reviews the structure, mechanism, and molecular evolution of this unique invention of nature.