著者

山内 麻理

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.17, no.2, pp.37-55, 2016-12-01 (Released:2018-04-05)

参考文献数

40

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Dual system of vocational education and training in Germany has been undergoing periodic revisions to meet new requirements in a changing environment and it still maintains a pivotal position in German labor market. However, those reforms to reflect the changes in technology and industry structure have caused dualization and diversification of training occupations, resulting in the co-existence of those requiring more abstract knowledge and theories and those primarily requiring OJT. In the former, dual system now competes with higher education such as universities in order to secure highly capable young people. Low birth rate and globalization of education and labor markets have also increased the interest of German youth in higher education. To cope with this situation, German firms have invented new training options in order to attract highly capable youth, who have graduated from gymnasium with very good scores. For example, dual study program (DSP) is a hybrid system which offers apprentices opportunities of participation in firmbased OJT and higher education at the same time, while receiving training allowances. Since both initial vocational qualification and bachelor degree can be obtained on fast track, DSP is rapidly gaining popularity. More training options are now available for highly capable German youth, while it is becoming more difficult for graduate from hauptschule, a major supplier of apprentices in the past, to receive training positions that lead to good income. In addition, active updating and sophistication of existing occupations have been accompanied by a side effect of crowding out small companies from dual system due to increased costs. Similarly, DSPs are offered almost exclusively by large firms. Thus, within German vocational education and training, disparities among firms as well as among apprentices are now becoming more salient. When we look at another important institution of collective bargaining, coverage ratio of industry based agreements have now substantially fallen. Segmentalization or dualization of collective bargaining and vocational education and training are observed simultaneously.

著者

鈴木 智之

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.17, no.1, pp.69-91, 2016-06-01 (Released:2018-01-24)

参考文献数

44

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This report examines inter-rater reliability of recruiting interviews for new graduates based on existing data of the Japanese software development company A. Data of five components are used in this analysis.Inter-rater reliability of Spearman's correlation coefficient ranged from 0.04 to 0.41, revealing that reliability differs between components. Analysis through other coefficients demonstrates differing results according to the selected correlation coefficient. Construct of each component does not be seemed dependent.

著者

林 嶺那

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.21, no.3, pp.76-91, 2021-05-01 (Released:2021-08-19)

参考文献数

89

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The purpose of this paper is to review the study of promotion, mainly in the Japanese public sector, from three points of view1 .the key points in observing promotion structure and the basic characteristics of promotion structure in national and local governments,2.the main research approaches, and3.subjects, data, and methods.The contribution of this paper is twofold. First, this paper is, as far as can be seen, the first comprehensive review paper on public sector promotion research. Secondly, whereas conventional reviews of promotion research focusing on the private sector have been conducted mainly from an economics or business administration perspective, this paper broadly discusses the perspectives from both theoretical and empirical perspectives from different disciplines such as economics, business administration, public administration, and political science, organizing three approaches.In line with the three objectives mentioned earlier, this paper is structured as followed: First, we summarize what has been pointed out about the reality of promotion in the national and local governments within the Japanese public sector, along the following five lines. Namely1.the intensity of track-by-track management at the entry-level,2.the speed of promotion,3.how the disparities in promotion within a given personnel group are made,4.selection through horizontal movement without promotion, and5.in relation to politics.Next, three approaches to promotion research in the public sector have been described: the functional approach, the normative approach, and the power approach. The functional approach is mainly adopted by economists and considers that the promotion structure is rationally designed for the organization’s purpose and work performance. It is also believed that the organizational environment and technical conditions create differences in the abilities and skills needed by the organization and the promotion structure that develops them. The abilities and skills here are assumed to be objectively ascertainable, at least in theory, and to have a single entity.The normative approach is a sociological approach that focuses on the unique role of norms not dissolved by environmental conditions when considering promotion. It is critical of overly rational explanations of management and emphasizes that organizations are embedded in their social, cultural, and historical contexts. Capability is seen as socially constructed within those particular contexts. This is the so-called “social construction theory of ability.”The power approach focuses on the principal nature of government as an organization and is concerned with how power struggles between actors manifest themselves in promotion mechanisms. Many political scientists and public administration scholars have adopted this approach, with the theme of political-government relations (the relationship between politicians and administrators) receiving particular attention.Thirdly, subjects, data, and methods that previous studies have addressed are discussed. As for the research subjects, interest in the subject has expanded in recent years to include technical officials and non-elite employees. In recent years, the number of studies relying on primary data such as official documents has increased. Although the basic research method is to draw a career tree, in recent years, new methods such as Bayesian estimation and QCA have been applied to more rigorously clarify the structure of promotion and analyze the causes and consequences of the structure.We conclude with a discussion of future challenges for promotion research in the public sector. There are three main challenges: the development of databases, the expansion of research subjects, and the refinement of each research approach.

著者

平尾 智隆

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.17, no.2, pp.4-18, 2016-12-01 (Released:2018-04-05)

参考文献数

30

被引用文献数

2

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In this paper, we analyze the negative impacts of overeducation on wages in the Japanese youth labor market. In addition, this study assesses empirically the validity of the Human Capital Theory and Job Competition Model within the context of overeducation and undereducation. Our study uses the data set of a web monitoring survey targeting Japanese youth aged 17 to 27; the survey was conducted in January 2012 by the Economic and Social Research Institute, Cabinet Office. The increasing trend of youth to enroll for longer educational courses and the relative scarcity of suitable job opportunities later results in overeducation. Overeducation is the mismatch that an individual has higher qualifications than required for their current jobs. This phenomenon leads to various negative outcomes. As expected, there is a negative relationship between overeducation and wages. Overeducated workers earn significantly lesser than their correctly placed colleagues, after controlling for ability and other potential bias. The occupational structure of the Japanese youth labor market lacks the capacity to absorb the rising number of educated workers into traditional occupations. Conversely, undereducated employees earn more than youth in jobs exactly matched to their qualifications. In terms of a theoretical framework, our findings imply that the Human Capital Theory is not valid within the context of overeducation and undereducation in the Japanese youth labor market.

著者

戸田 信聡

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.22, no.1, pp.20-34, 2021-06-01 (Released:2021-09-10)

参考文献数

35

著者

石山 恒貴 山下 茂樹

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.18, no.1, pp.21-43, 2017-06-01 (Released:2018-06-01)

参考文献数

50

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This study analyzes the mechanisms and conditions of functioning for strategic talent management. Strategic talent management is a theoretical concept based on strategic human resource management. It focuses on key positions that contribute to the competitive advantage of a company and on developing a talent pool of high potential and high performing incumbents. The study investigates 11 foreign-owned companies and one Japanese company and its primary findings are as follows. (1) The key components of the mechanisms and conditions of functioning for strategic talent management are "definition of the key positions," "talent review," "participation of executive team," and "visualization with talent chart (block chart) ." (2) The involvement and participation of the executive team for talent development is essential. (3) The fundamental rules of Japanese style human resource management are different from that of strategic talent management. Therefore, a Japanese company should choose the most appropriate method to implement either strategic talent management or Japanese style human resource management.

著者

SHIN Hayoung

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.21, no.2, pp.44-57, 2021-02-01 (Released:2021-05-26)

参考文献数

47

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The purpose of this paper is to direct attention to prosocial motivation, which has been attracting increasing interest recently in organizational behavior research, as well as to examine how it has been applied and developed in organizational behavior research, while summarizing its conceptual development. Prosocial motivation was originally considered from interest in the factors that arouse prosocial behavior. Study has progressed since then, however, and it has developed as part of motivation research as the desire or motive to benefit others’ welfare—particularly in the field of organizational behavior research. From this background, the paper points out that differences in orientation and hierarchy are observed when the concept of prosocial motivation is compared in early research and in recent organizational behavior research, and it summarizes the conceptual differences. Furthermore, in empirical research in the organizational behavior field, prosocial motivation research is generated from interest in topics such as prosocial behavior in organizations and prosocial job design; research on the antecedents of prosocial motivation is also increasing. Finally, the paper discusses future research subjects based on this accumulation of research.

著者

永田 正樹

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.22, no.1, pp.4-19, 2021-06-01 (Released:2021-09-10)

参考文献数

27

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In models of reflection in previous research, individual reflection processes have been considered, yet methods to support reflection and encourage learning among subordinates have not been examined. On the contrary, in manager coaching research, coaching behavior for reflection support has been examined, but the process of reflection support has not been clarified. To address these gaps, this paper aims to examine the research question, “What is the process by which a manager supports experiential learning centered on reflection to encourage the growth of his subordinates?”. Interviews of 17 managers who possessed advanced subordinate skills were conducted, and the process of experiential learning support centered on reflection was qualitatively analyzed using the grounded theory approach. The results show that experiential learning assistance consists of “preparing growth assistance,” “assigning work,” and “assisting with reflection.” In the “preparing growth assistance” , managers collaborate with mid-level employees and strive to build teams that encourage free dialogue and cooperation among members in order to psychologically reassure their subordinates. In addition, to prepare for assigning challenging works to subordinates, managers carefully observe their subordinates and gain an understanding of their career visions, characteristics, and strengths. In the “assigning work” , managers provide their subordinates with stretch experiences, which is necessary to encourage them to reflect. When doing so, they express the meaning of and expectations for the work and provide concrete guidance to improve their subordinates’ acceptance for working on the stretch assignments. In the “assisting with reflection” , managers check the facts about the experience of their subordinates strove towards and assist them in analyzing the operations. Then, they distill lessons from what they learned. This paper contributes to the existing literature by identifying the process of reflection-based experiential learning assistance, which has been insufficiently examined so far, from the viewpoint of preparing growth assistance, ensuring psychological safety, and assigning work.

著者

坂爪 洋美

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.20, no.2, pp.15-20, 2020-06-01 (Released:2020-09-05)

著者

藤澤 広美 廣川 佳子 梅崎 修

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.23, no.1, pp.76-93, 2022-06-01 (Released:2022-08-20)

参考文献数

34

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In this paper, an exploratory analysis of employees in an information technology company( Cybozu Inc.) is conducted by examining team communication skills and team characteristics that engender collective creativity, which is a factor in corporate competitiveness. First, group interviews of 8 employees were conducted to understand team communication skills and team characteristics by using categorical analysis. A questionnaire survey was then developed based on the keywords extracted from the interviews. Through quantitative analysis, which was conducted among 597 employees, with 186 respondents and a valid response rate of 31.2%, six concepts related to team communication skills and two related to team characteristics were identified. Existing creativity scales were then employed to determine the positive effects of the identified factors on collective creativity. The results of this analysis revealed an aspect of the group emergence mechanism that had not previously been examined.

著者

中西 善信

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.21, no.3, pp.5-17, 2021-05-01 (Released:2021-08-19)

参考文献数

39

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Of late, the term “boundary crossing,” i.e., conducting learning activities beyond the boundaries of organizations and workplaces, such as workshops and volunteer activities, has been drawing the attention of practitioners and researchers. Boundary crossing provides opportunities to acquire knowledge and skill unavailable at routine workplaces. It also facilitates obtaining new perspectives and thoughts. However, the concept of boundary crossing is not matured and lacks a firm consensus among researchers as they perceive the term “boundary” differently. While such differences are allowed, we should nonetheless clarify and recognize the difference between the perspectives on boundary crossing for developing the boundary crossing theory. Our review of the literature on boundary crossing identified two perspectives. Some works focus on the physical or institutional boundary between organizations, workplaces, and so on, while others focus on the heterogeneity of situation/context between workplaces. Furthermore, in addition to heterogeneity, the homogeneity of context shared by people engaged in boundary crossing facilitates their learning. Both heterogeneity and homogeneity of context contribute toward learning in different manners.

著者

川端 由美子

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.19, no.1, pp.26-42, 2018-05-01 (Released:2018-12-27)

参考文献数

44

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This study examines the human resources management systems for spousal transfers, including workplace transfer programs, administrative leave for trailing spouses programs, and reemployment programs. It was revealed that, even when companies had human resources management systems in place to deal with spousal transfers, they were not necessarily thorough in their responses.Workplace transfer programs are offered by companies across the country, implementing course based personnel management systems. Such programs have often been used, but transfers for trailing spouses pose difficulties for the following four reasons. First problem is location. A job location must be found within a territory where the trailing spouse’s company operates, where there must be a job opening, and the more rural area is, the fewer jobs it has. Second problem is job content; as the work may vary according to the workplace locations, one may have to make a choice to opting for the location or for a job in which one has experiences. Third, such programs are part of regular personnel rotations, hence, there is a time lag before starting the new job. The program applicants have to deal with issues involved in the job transfer while waiting for the company’s decision on whether the relocation is accepted. Fourth, such programs do not envision reuse within a short period of time. Though reuse is formally possible, it is not culturally accepted.Administrative leave for trailing spouses programs is mainly set to prevent women in career track positions from resigning. In many companies, such programs are limited to those whose spouses have been transferred overseas. This non-statutory leave involves the following three issues. First, such programs contain several restrictions: approval authority lies with the company and the total of each leave period must be within the fixed limit. These restrictions make it impossible for such programs to meet individual needs. Second, administrative leave causes a gap in one’s career. Because such programs are not statutory, the companies do not offer assistance in reentering the work force, and it is not even considered. Third, cases of domestic transfers are basically ineligible. In addition, there are no plans to expand such eligibility.Reemployment programs are implemented as a form of mid-career hiring, so they are easy to introduce, and many companies have done so. Reemployment after being out of the work force is not the continuation of employment but a way to restart employment, which involves the following three issues. First, taking advantage of these programs is difficult unless the employee’s spouse’s transfer has been stopped, because there is a limit to the number of years that one may be out of the work force. Second, similar to administrative leave for trailing spouses programs, there would be a gap in one’s employment history, so getting back into one’s career is difficult. Third, reemployment possibilities are determined by companies’ needs since such programs can be customized for responding the business climate.Job transfers affect not only the transferred ones but also their spouses’ companies. Companies that transfer employees are on both the giving and receiving ends of this impact. However, the fact is that companies have little awareness of it. Even if they introduce human resources management systems for spousal transfers, they are unable to carry them out well. When a company transfers an employee, it is crucial to consider how to support the employee, which includes provision of an adequate explanation beforehand, coordination between the company and the employee, and achievement of a mutual agreement.

著者

大塚 英美 大内 章子

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.15, no.2, pp.34-46, 2014-12

著者

梅崎 修 田口 和雄

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.21, no.1, pp.5-20, 2020-10-01 (Released:2021-01-05)

参考文献数

18

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This study compared the functions of labor unions between a sample of contract workers and full-time salaried workers, based on survey questionnaires. First, it examined the manner in which full-time salaried workers and contract workers were engaged with labor unions. According to the study's findings, labor union membership rate of contract workers was lower than that of full-time salaried workers. In addition, although the full-time salaried workers and contract workers equally voiced their opinions and made requests to their superiors, when the contract workers joined labor unions, they communicated through their union representatives. Second, the effects of labor unions on full-time salaried workers and contract workers were analyzed. Among the full-time salaried workers, the effects of both labor unions and union members on employment security were statistically positive, whereas other effects were statistically non-significant. Meanwhile, the effects of other systems on wages, jobs, and human relations in companies without labor unions were also positive. Third, among the contract workers, the effects of union members on employment security were statistically positive, whereas the effects of labor unions on wages and jobs were statistically positive. In sum, the effects of labor unions on contract workers were greater than those on full-time salaried workers. Despite this finding, there are two possible reasons for the limited number of contract workers to join labor unions. The first reason is that contract workers have a greater incentive to leave a company compared to their full-time salaried counterparts; the second reason is that contract workers are used to consulting their superiors, instead of union representatives.

著者

清家 篤

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.22, no.2, pp.2-3, 2021-12-01 (Released:2022-03-07)

被引用文献数

1

著者

山本 和史

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.18, no.1, pp.4-20, 2017-06-01 (Released:2018-06-01)

参考文献数

34

被引用文献数

2

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This study identifies issues with and countermeasures for the hiring of new graduates in small and medium-sized enterprise (SMEs) while considering the differences in such hiring behavior among large firms. Differences between large firms and SMEs were confirmed to understand the characteristics of hiring behaviors in SMEs, the subject of the research, and the research focus was subsequently narrowed. Issues with SMEs were (1) population formation due to the low brand power for hiring; (2) shortages of human resources for hiring and know-how; and (3) trade-offs between early informal job offers through RJP initiatives and early turnover rates. The study then examined how SMEs that focus on these selected issues, and those that are successful in hiring, respond to these issues. The results of the analysis were as follows.First, regarding population formation, SMEs used different methods from large firms by strategically coordinating the timing of hiring new graduates and using unique promotion methods and channels such as Facebook, other social media, and dedicated websites.Second, in response to a lack of human resources, SMEs used outside professionals if there was no hiring know-how in the company. In addition, executives and employees outside of human resources aggressively participated in hiring. However, there were risks in hiring behavior where there were no partnerships with executives or those responsible for human resources.Third, for RJP, many employees, including executives, participated in hiring rather than having the human resources group lead the process. This increased opportunities for different types of communication with students. With SMEs in particular, there is a risk of informal offers being turned down when they are simply given information on the work environment, whereas sympathetically sharing information, such as workplace experience via other hirees (in actual internships) or even the traditional company briefing, produced results.Based on these cases, successful measures for SMEs are those that are unique to each company rather than the imitation of hiring methods used by large firms. However, these measures are not shared among SMEs. If effective ways for hiring new graduates can be shared outside individual companies and with society as a whole, then they can be useful in reducing mismatches in the new graduate labor market.

著者

中津 陽介

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.22, no.2, pp.41-55, 2021-12-01 (Released:2022-03-07)

参考文献数

56

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The purpose of this paper is to review conceptual research on the concept of “overall fairness” , which has attracted much attention in recent years in the field of organizational justice research. The concept of overall fairness is defined as “the global evaluations of the fairness of an entity based on personal experiences as well as on the experiences of others” . Based on the conceptual debate on overall fairness that developed in the 1990s and 2000s, this paper will summarize the background of researchersʼ interest in the concept and how they conceptualized the concept of inclusive justice.In the first half of this paper, I try to relate the growing interest of researchers in the concept of overall fairness to the changes in researchersʼ core issues that have occurred in organizational justice research since the late 1980s. Then I summarize the limitations of organizational justice as existing concept and the usefulness of the concept of overall fairness for examining new issues. In the latter half of this paper, I will organize how researchers have conceptualized and operationalized overall fairness in order to examine new issues in organizational justice research. In particular, this paper will explain three representative ideas that constitute the definition of overall fairness concept, called “total justice model”, “justice heuristics theory”, and “entity justice”, as well as two approaches to operationalizing overall fairness. Finally, I will summarize the contents of this paper and present the significance of focusing on overall fairness and the prospects for future research.

著者

井川 静恵 平尾 智隆

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.21, no.2, pp.5-20, 2021-02-01 (Released:2021-05-26)

参考文献数

24

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In this paper, we investigate whether human resource management practices can significantly enhance the work-life-balance satisfaction of workers using personnel-micro data from a Japanese medium-sized company, comprising approximately 600 employees. The dataset is of all regular employees working in one manufacturing company including in both blue-collar and white-collar occupations of three divisions: Product, Sales, and R&D. The objective of this study is to examine the heterogeneity and trends of human resource management. The results showed that there is a positive relationship between the fairness of job allocation and the work-life-balance satisfaction. It was also found that under-skilled workers in the Sales (R&D) division receive significantly lesser (higher) work-life-balance satisfaction than their correctly placed colleagues, after controlling for boss effect and other workplace characteristics.

著者

橋村 政哉

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.21, no.1, pp.37-47, 2020-10-01 (Released:2021-01-05)

参考文献数

13

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Health and productivity management is a method of strategic of employees' healthcare to achieve greater wellbeing and improve performance. The research focuses on the implementation of health and productivity management system in Japan and its effects on Human Resource Management from the insurer's viewpoint. The health insurer reviewed in the study provides medical insurance to employees in small enterprises. The insurer promotes health and productivity management aimed at reducing medical costs and claims. This ultimately has a positive effect on insurance premiums when insurers pass on the benefits to small enterprises. This research revealed that a collaborative approach between insurers and enterprises may be beneficial for promoting employees' healthcare in small enterprises. The study demonstrates that when the management is better aware of healthcare, Human Resource Management is effective and can have a positive impact on productivity.The study and the medical insurance considered are limited to Hiroshima Prefecture's situation. It does not consider the actual cases of health and productivity management in small enterprises in the main paper under limitations. This leaves many challenges for the future.

著者

須田 敏子

出版者

日本労務学会

雑誌

日本労務学会誌 (ISSN:18813828)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.20, no.2, pp.27-46, 2020-06-01 (Released:2020-09-05)

参考文献数

84

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The change from seniority-based and person-based systems towards performance-based and jobbased systems on individual reward determinations is one of the most significant changes in Japanese HRM over the last three decades. Centralized decision-making on HRM issues is also characteristic of Japanese HRM, and the seniority-based and person-based systems and centralized decision-making on HRM issues are complementary to each other. Therefore, the change towards performancebased and job-based systems can facilitate the change of centralized decision-making on HRM issues towards decentralized decision-making. This research investigated the extent to which senioritybased and person-based systems and centralized decision-making on HRM issues have changed. The method used for the investigation was a comparison between Japanese-owned companies and foreignowned companies operating in Japan. As a result, the research obtained some important findings, including the following issues. First, while the changes towards performance-based and job-based systems have progressed, there is no evidence on changes in centralized decision-making on HRM issues. Therefore, complementarity between the characteristics of Japanese HRM may have broken down. Second, although seniority-based and person-based systems have certainly changed towards performance-based and job-based systems in Japanese-owned companies, seniority elements are more focused in Japanese-owned companies than in foreign-owned companies, and performance and job elements are more focused in foreign-owned companies than in Japanese-owned companies. Third, it has been generally considered that shokumu suikou nouryoku (the ability to perform jobs) in Japanese HRM is general and abstract but not specific and that this characteristic of shokumu suikou nouryoku is complemented by a seniority-based system. Past research has found that Japanese HRM has changed towards the performance-based and job-based systems that characterize Western HRM, but that these changes are not yet complete, and Japanese HRM is in position midway between Japanese HRM and Western HRM. As a result, there have been debates concerning issues around person-based systems and job-based systems. In such situations, the factor analysis of the answers gathered from Japanese-owned companies conducted in this research extracted two factors: job and performance factors, which consist of shokumu suikou nouryoku, job value, role, performance and behavior (evaluated by competency); and seniority factors, which consist of age and years of service. It can be considered based on these results, that shokumu suikou nouryoku is no longer general and abstract, and it has changed towards having a similar characteristic of person specification extracted based on job analysis, which is due to the spread of Western HRM practices. The author argues that through the changing characteristics of shokumu suikou nouryoku, the characteristics of individual reward determination have qualitatively changed to be more similar to such determination found in Western HRM.