著者

野原 康弘

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.44, no.1, pp.115-168, 2018-07

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Nagasaki city, with a population today of 420,000, used to be a poor village until OhmuraSumitada, a feudal lord, authorized its opening as a port and the initiation of commerce withPortuguese merchants in 1571. Not only trading merchants but also many Christians moved intothis village and colonized it. More than 15 churches were built in the small area one after another,and the village resounded far and wide with church bells, reminiscent of Rome itself. So Nagasakicame to be called "Little Rome." As a matter of fact, the village was donated to the Society ofJesus. The village seemed to grow and flourish, but its prosperous years failed to last, contraryto expectations.In 1614, the ban on Christianity was issued, which led to attacks on Catholicism, including thedestruction of churches and the persecution of Christians. Churches were replaced by temples.Christians were supposed to disappear completely.So Buddhist ceremonies came to be held in Nagasaki. One such ceremony was the BonFestival, which used to be held in the middle of the seventh month in the lunar calendar. Thesolar calendar introduced by the Meiji Government caused a upheaval of events and seasons. Themiddle of the seventh month ( July) in the solar calendar is in the midst of the rainy season, nota suitable season for the Bon Festival. During the Bon Festival, Nagasaki people usually visit theirancestors' grave with their family, clean and decorate the grave, and offer food to their ancestors.It is common for many families to hold a banquet at the graveyard to entertain their visitors,which in former times often resulted in the spread of plague. After a heated discussion, aconclusion was reached : the Bon Festival would be moved to mid-August (the eighth month).During the Bon Festival, people welcome the spirits of the deceased to visit their homes, tostay with their families until the last day of Bon, when the spirits have to return to Jodo, theBuddhist Pure Land. So the family make a ship (called Shorobune) for the spirit, carry it to theseashore, and launch it to sail to the West. This custom is called Shoronagashi. At first, the shipswere quite humble affairs, but over time people wanted to make them fancier as they werebelieved to carry the spirits to Jodo. Many families who lose a family member start making sucha ship.Shoronagashi is, in other words, a spirit boat procession unique to Nagasaki. On the last day ofthe Bon Festival, a large number of ships of various sizes are carried by family members and theirfriends to the seaside area to be sailed to so-called Jodo. The streets leading to the shore throngwith ships and people. Firecrackers explode here and there, and earsplitting noises can be heardall around. People carrying the ships shout with passion. So the procession of the ships isnoisy but joyous. Behavior generally disallowed in daily life and acts beyond the bounds ofcommon sense are traditionally permitted only during Shoronagashi.On arriving at the spot to release the ship, however, deep sorrow falls on the revelers all of asudden. Everybody is filled with a sense of loss and deprivation, recalling the feeling of a ratherdifferent event. Indeed, it seems akin to a funeral, or rather, a second funeral. To be more precise,this event ought to be considered the formal funeral.When the family member passed away, his or her funeral was performed.It was naturally a private funeral. Everything may well have been done all too quickly. Or thefamily might have had no time to think about reflecting their deceased member's intentions. Theysimply followed the instructions of the funeral director. But if this Shoronagashi is regarded as theformal funeral, all the people of Nagasaki, regardless of faith, can join the Bon ceremony to shiptheir ancestors to their respective destinations, whether Jodo, Paradise or elsewhere.Even Christians, if they wish to, can join this event, which originated from Buddhism, withoutqualms, attesting to the fact that Christianity came first to Nagasaki, and Buddhism second.Nagasaki has grown larger through these faiths as a remarkable city.

著者

尾谷 雅比古

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.33, no.3, pp.155-183, 2008-03-18

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This paper discussed about, how the modern Japanese Government established the Protection of Mounded tomb system through enactment of the law. The Modern Protection of Mounded tomb system was divided into three stages by the law. The following results were, 1. Formation Stage (1968_1894), this period begins with Meiji Restoration to the Sino-Japanese War. The Government prescribed the Tomb of the emperor, uncertain 13th Tomb of the emperor, and focus was Tombs of the emperor and imperial family system. 2. Development Stage (1895_1904), this period begins with the Sino-Japanese War to the Russo-Japanese War. The Tombs of the emperor and imperial family system had an effect on a campaign for the Preservation of Mounded tomb by Civilian research group, was begun to carry out another way. 3. Establishment Stage (1905_1919), this period begin with Russo-Japanese War to enacted Act of Preservation of Historic site, Scenic beauty and Natural monument, 1919. The Modern Protection of Mounded tomb system determined the new line, was effected by establishment of the Modern Emperor Nation system, raised Nationalism and imperialism. The Modern protection of Mounded tomb system had two-way government, Tombs of the emperor aud imperial family system and Scenic beauty system, until the Act of Protection of cultural property was established 1950. I declared that a number of the Tomb, out of government subject, was disregarded by the Imperial Household Agency, they were paid attention to only the Tombs of the emperor aud imperial family system.

著者

小林 信彦 Nobuhiko KOBAYASHI

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.25, no.2, pp.35-50, 2000-01

被引用文献数

1

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In ancient India, the Buddhist samgha as a self-governing community maintained order by means of its own law called "vinaya." Violators were punished according to vinaya. On the other hand, all Buddhists, whether monks or laymen, were expected to follow particular customs called "sila." Unlike vinaya, this was not compulsory and did not carry penalties. In Japan far away from the original land of Buddhism, no one paid attention to the distinction between vinaya and sila, because temples were the apparatus of government and there was no samgha to be governed by vinaya. Under such circumstances, Saicho (766-822) openly repudiated vinaya and replaced it with sila. From that time down to this day, the Japanese have been convinced that the essence of true Buddhism consists in the repudiation of vinaya.

著者

梅山 秀幸 桃山学院大学国際教養学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.37, no.1, pp.59-78[含 英語文要旨], 2011-07

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Dojoji is the famous temple for the wicked love story of Anchin and Kiyohime. But there is also an another legend of Kaminaga-hime (Princess Long Hair) which tells of the origin of the temple. There once was a fisherman's daughter who had beautiful long hair by grace of Kannon figure to which she always prayed. One day a bird brought some of her hairs to the imperial palace. Discovering the hairs, the emperor ordered his servants to find the owner of the hairs in order to marry her. Brought to the palace and made a favorite of the emperor, the fisherman's daughter although was sad because she had abandoned the Kannon figure. Dojoji was built by the emperor who sympathized with her anxiety for the Kannon figure. On the discovery of the golden hairs brought by a bird, King Mark had Iseult brought from Ireland by Tristan to his palace. The story of Kaminaga-hime of Dojoji is a variation of "Tristan and Iseult". In addition, Kaminaga-hime of Dojoji is not an isolated case in Japan. In Kojiki we can also find another version of "Tristan and Iseult". Kaminaga-hime of Hyuga province was sent to Yamato to marry Emperor Ojin. Nintoku, son of the emperor, falls in love with her because of her enormous beauty and became sick of impossibility of his love. Ojin, acquainted with the agony of his son, decides to concede his beautiful fiancee to him. This relation of three persons (Kaminaga-hime, Nintoku, and Ojin), recalls the triangular relation of Iseult, Tristan, and Mark. The folklore tales of "Esugata-nyobo (The Portrait of the Beauty)" which succeed those of Kaminaga-hime, are found from north to south in Japan. In those tales a portrait enchants a lord instead of hairs. Looking by accident at a portrait of a beauty, a lord commands his retainers to fetch and carry her to his castle. Her husband, surprised at the sudden disappearance of his beloved, comes to the castle where she is living melancholically with the lord. Then, her husband, profiting by his excellent musical skill, succeeds in exiling the lord and regains his wife. It is needless to say that Tristan is an expert at the lute and the violin. The Chondara theater still remains in Okinawa. It is said that Chondara is the name of the musician who came from Kyoto and brought Japanese traditional music to Okinawa. Chondara had a very beautiful wife, whose portrait was blown by the wind and was gained by the Emperor. Emperor wanted her and ordered hie men to abduct her in order to satisfy his desire. In his deep desperation, Chondara came to the castle and performed music well in the presence of his beloved and the abductor. Chondara did not succeed to regain her, but being awarded the fief of Okinawa, had to live alone as a musician there. Tristan, of course, at last lived in Bretagne, crossing over the sea, far away from Iseult.

著者

辻 洋一郎

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.40, no.2, pp.87-101, 2015-01-30

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Ascertaining the process of acquiring persuasive abilities can engender the development of effective materials and teaching methods to improve these abilities. This report describes that acquisition process and explains the evaluation of persuasive abilities. We evaluated the ability of first-year students by assigning them an evaluation task three times (stages): to write an e-mail message to a teacher requesting postponement of a report deadline. Results show that, in the first stage, most reported only data which had been shown to them as much as possible, but they tried to include their insistence and requests in the middle stage. They arranged several necessary conditions adequately in the final stage. Their evaluation tests also showed a trend toward adding salutations and polite messages in the final stage. Aside from analysis of characteristics of the high-development group, we also examined how to improve the abilities of the low-development group.

著者

矢根 真二

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.42, no.2, pp.23-40, 2016-12-05

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本稿の目的は, 日本の上水道料金の大きな格差という視点から, 道州制レベルへの事業地域範囲の拡大という抜本的な改革の重要性を提起することである。その主要な根拠は, 「市町村原則の罪」と「政治的な価格決定」という2つの仮説的な見方である。すなわち, 地域固有の経済的合理性よりも水道供給責任を各市町村に課す原則を優先させたために, 高費用な零細事業者を作り出したことと, その結果としての費用格差の拡大が原価を賄えない政治的な価格決定を過半の事業者に蔓延させたことである。この2つの見方を経験的に裏付けることによって, 価格格差以上に著しい費用格差のある現状理解が容易になると同時に, この問題解消の難しさも明らかになる。そこで最後に, 平等面でも財政面でもいっそう魅力的に映る道州制レベルで試算された価格表を提示する。

著者

山内 はるひ/栄 セツコ 栄 セツコ

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.41, no.3, pp.1-21, 2016-03-15

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The Psychiatric Social Worker Act issued in 1997 was amended in 2011, putting more emphasis on exercises and training sessions in the training course. Training sessions are thought to play an important role in understanding the value of the work of psychiatric social workers (PSWs) and the formation of one's identity as a PSW. However, no study has so far investigated how trainers teach the value of the work of PSWs to trainees. This study clarifies how trainers teach the value of the work of PSWs to trainees and how the trainees acquire the knowledge by conducting semi-structured interviews with trainees and their trainers. We found that trainees experience a process : awareness, verbalization, deepening recognition, self-awareness, recalling knowledge from experience and practice, and value formation. At each stage of the process, the trainers supervise and teach the value of the work of PSWs to the trainees by teaching them to extract abstract values from specific cases and then choose which value to prioritize among contradicting values. The trainees strengthened their learning through a post-learning and field practice after the training. We consider the abilities of regarding their practice objectively, visualizing and verbalizing the value of their work, and maximizing their ability to supervise as prerequisites to being good trainers.

著者

山川 偉也 Hideya YAMAKAWA

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.26, no.1, pp.141-179, 2000-09

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Momoyama-gakuin University aims primarily at fostering the cosmopolitans embracing Christianity who participate actively in the international affairs and contribute much to the community of nations so that build a new dimension of the cosmopolitan culture. But, why is the word 'cosmopolitan' connected with Christianity and what does it imply in the contexts of university curriculum? What at all is the origin of the word 'cosmopolitan' which might not always be positively evaluated? In regard to these questions, in a series of papers, I would like to delineate some significant circumstances concerning the origins and the essence of 'cosmopolitan' and 'cosmopolitanism.' The present paper in speciality examines some cosmopolitan characters in Marcus Aurelius, Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, and Aurelius Augustinus and tries to classify the ideas of cosmopolitanism into four types which run parallel to the four categorical propositions in the traditional formal logic.

著者

矢根 眞二

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.37, no.3, pp.151-172, 2012-03-30

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The purpose of this paper is to clarify the investment requirements to replace old water pipes, which are the main capital stock within the supply structure of Japanese drinking water suppliers. This is an urgent issue because these updates are overdue. As a result, I have derived four important implications. First, bulk water suppliers' sustainment of their dam-water purification capacity and water suppliers' conservation of ground water are indispensable to maintaining the current supply system. Second, water suppliers need to spend an average of 920 million yen per year for the next half-century in order to maintain the water pipes currently in use. If they add this spending to water rates, the average water rate nearly doubles. Third, the majority of these water suppliers use aged water pipes that have actually exceeded their legal working life. In order to renew these pipes, water rates would need to be 4.5 times as much as they are now. Fourth, although a prompt regulatory reform is desired due to the difficulties faced by small-and-tinysized utilities in trying to solve these problems on their own, political conventions prevent these reforms by delaying them. The fact that these conventions themselves are the root of the problem is a grave issue.

著者

青野 正明

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.28, no.3, pp.5-9, 2003-03-20

著者

査 蕾 竹歳 一紀

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.41, no.1, pp.167-187, 2015-07

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This paper focuses on community-based power plants in Japan, and analyzes ways of citizen participation and schemes for revitalizing communities with these kinds of energy projects. Community-based power plants (CBPPs) utilize natural energy resources, such as solar, wind and hydro power, which are underused in communities. CBPPs are expected to not only be alternative energy resources but also effective triggers for community revitalization. For these purposes, CBPPs have been spreading in Japan, especially after the Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011. Citizens can participate in CBPPs by donating or investing money. Some people are also engaged in management and maintenance of CBPPs. Profits from selling electricity generated by CBPPs are shared by the investors, who are in most cases local residents. For some CBPPs, the profits are paid back as "community money," which can be circulated in these communities. In these ways, CBPPs can generate profits from natural resources and circulate the profits in local communities. In this paper, we investigate three CBPPs, one located in Tsuru City in Yamanashi Prefecture, and the other two in Yasu City and Hikone City, Shiga Prefecture. In Tsuru City, the city government issues public bonds, limiting the holders to city residents. In Yasu City, a kind of "community money" is used to collect money to build the CBPP, and it also contributes to increasing the sales of local shops. In Hikone City, residents who are interested in the CBPP have formed a group to invest in the CBPP. Based on several cases of CBPPs, including those described in our study, we can conclude that a moderate-sized project, proper methods of raising money, and positive support from local government are necessary in order for CBPPs to trigger community revitalization. More importantly, local people themselves should ensure that a proper CBPP scheme is developed in their community through participation and discussion.

著者

小林 信彦 Nobuhiko Kobayashi

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.30, no.3, pp.121-124, 2005-03

著者

南出 和余

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.38, no.3, pp.75-93, 2013-03

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Global society in the information age strongly demands education in media literacy, which means the ability to judge phenomena subjectively and then communicate with others interactively. In response to this demand, since 2008 St. Andrew's University has provided media literacy education as part of the faculty of International and Liberal Arts. This paper describes the author's educational practice for "cross-cultural understanding through filmmaking." The word "media" means an intermediary for transmission and reception of information and communication, and widely ranges from public media to private communications. Needless to say, the medium that symbolizes the information age is the Internet. Not only does it dramatically increase the amount of information and facilitates the data's transmission, the Internet's spread has made it possible for people to access it from both ends of the spectrum. The Internet is also being used to easily transmit linguistic information as well as visual images. Through our own eyes, we have confirmed some of the facts and images we know about global society, yet the majority of the knowledge is obtained through public media. Nonetheless, while the sources of the information we receive has spread globally, the targets we send to are usually of a personal relationship. In this sense, the transmission and reception of information are asymmetrically related. In such a situation, everyday practice limits for students to learn the critical literacy for public media. In this paper, I will introduce my practice of media literacy education from the perspective of visual anthropology on two aspects : interpreting images and learning through video production. The former approach tries to show a series of ethnographic films that were mainly produced with awareness of the relation between filmmaker and informants. To identify the existence of "creator" between subjects on the screen and ourselves watching the film leads students to read the authors' interpretation and messages. The latter approach, video production of a 15-minute documentary film, aims to provide students with structural understanding of fact recognition and expression. These approaches, I believe, can offer students not only the capacity of information processing but also training for planning and self-expression skills.

著者

松端 克文 Katsufumi Matsunohana

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.35, no.3, pp.93-108, 2010-03

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The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of social planning for people with disabilities on the process of deinstitutionalization. Deinstitutionalization or `from institution to community' has been perhaps the most important subject in the way services for people with intellectual disabilities have been organized in Japan. The provision of institutional care in Japan increased continuously from its establishment in the middle of the last century up until 2002, when the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare made the 2002 Plan for People with Disabilities. The Plan recommended that more provision should be made to house people with intellectual disabilities in group-homes within the community, rather than build new institutions. And the Services and Support for Persons with Disabilities Act of 2005 stipulated that ten percent of people living in institutions should be transferred to community living. Unfortunately, many people who transferred from institutions have returned to their parents' home and increased the burden of care on their families. Therefore in the creation of alternatives to institutions lies the task, not only of building new placements within the community, but also of finding new ways of organizing services and providing help and support, especially for people with the most extensive needs. A new vision of community services is required, focusing on such things as primacy of community living, emphasis on social relationships, individual-centered support, and personal choice and control. This is the greatest challenge facing all modern societies.

著者

松村 昌廣 Masahiro Matsumura

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.34, no.1, pp.27-45, 2008-06

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Over the last two decades or so, the People's Republic of China has sustained very high economic growth rates. China is now a significant international factor for Japan's economic performance, given that Japan's bilateral trade with China has surpassed that with the United States, at least in volume.This study analyzes the widening multifaceted structural imbalances and other contradictions that have resulted from China's unidimensional growth, with a major focus on domestic and international political challenges that have been posed to the developmental dictatorship under the Chinese Communist Party. This analysis is followed by a preliminary discussion on the durability of the current regime under deepening socio-economic contradictions, and on its external policies, in the light of these two variables' dynamic interactions.Through the editing and translation of a series of this author's op-ed essays, published in English elsewhere, this work will take an interdisciplinary, comprehensive approach to the contemporary Chinese political economy, including many important issues such as Taiwan independence/unification and Japan's history debate.

著者

名部 圭一

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.43, no.3, pp.1-14, 2018-03

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The aim of this paper is to analyze "affective society" in the post-truth age from the perspectiveof social system theory as elaborated by German sociologist Niklas Luhmann. According to thistheory, modern society is a functionally differentiated society to a high degree, where symbolicallygeneralized media of communication such as money, power, truth and love have developedand each functional system observes the other functional systems or its environment throughbinary codes such as true/ false (the system of science), legal / illegal (the legal system), andpayment /non-payment (the economic system).In his later life Luhmann analyzed mass media in terms of social system theory and insistedthat the binary code of the system of mass media is information/non-information, which enablesthe system to select new information from its environment. New information selected in thissystem, however, is severely limited; it must be true. Then, what is the binary code of the systemof the internet? We propose that it is connection/ disconnection. Compared with the system ofmass media, for the system of internet it is more critical how communication is connected to nextcommunication, for disconnection of communication means the death of the system itself. On theother hand, it is less important whether information is true or not than in the system of massmedia. This is why false or fake information is easy to circulate in the system of the internet. Badinformation drives out good―Gresham's Law in the post-truth age.

著者

栄 セツコ Setsuko Sakae

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.35, no.3, pp.53-74, 2010-03

被引用文献数

1

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Provision of high-quality care to support the independent living of people with psychiatric disabilities has been strongly emphasized in the field of mental health care. Cooperation among specialistsis said to be essential in this regard. In 2009, Setsuko Sakae et al. summed up their previous studies on such cooperation, defining the concept of cooperation as "a process of interaction between persons and organizations who share a common goal, in which they establish a cooperative relationship and work together to achieve their goal." This study targets clarification of relevant factors of cooperation. The authors consequently focused on the hospital discharge facilitation program, in which cooperation among organizations is considered to be indispensable. As the surveying method, a semi-structured interview was designed for the seven secretariats in charge of the program. Interview questions were about promotional/ obstructive factors of cooperation. As a result, the following four types of factors were extracted in relation to cooperation: (1) personal factors (empirical knowledge and motivation); (2) team factors (common goal, mutual respect /understanding, shared information, shared values in working toward the goal, flexible role allotment, and presence of a leader); (3) environmental factors (societal resources and laws and systems for mental health). To promote cooperation in the future, client involvement as well as discussions from the perspective of professional education will be required.

著者

石田 易司 小柳 敬明 川井 太加子

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.39, no.1, pp.91-137, 2013-08

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The population in farming and fishing villages of Japan had started to decline since the 1990s. This paper shows the process that transformed one village leading to marginalization, using the case of Masaki-Jima, a distant island located in Shima, Mie Prefecture, Japan. Masaki-Jima, had developed through its pearl industry, having over 600 residents in the 1950s. As the sea around the island became polluted, the skilled laborers left. This brought the end of the pearl industry in the Bay of Ago along with its tourism industry. As a result, over 80% of the island population is now over 65 years old ; and half of the 100 houses there are vacant. The only youth in the island now are 2 junior high school students, a brother and a sister. Their parents, in their forties at the time of this study, are the next youngest residents. Almost all others are the elderly. In this environment, this study explored 1) the elderly's attitudes toward living using interview methods and 2) the elderly care conditions using survey methods. The reality of the island life makes it impossible for the elderly who need care to remain on Masaki-Jima. The findings 1) suggest that the vast majority of the elderly gave up on the future of the island-the development and recovery of the island by the younger generation. They accept the current whereaboutsnatural disasters, diseases, and uneasiness for the lack of elderly care in the island - and are simply waiting for the day that they are unable to survive on the island. And 2) because of the lack of public elderly care on the island, the results show that many senior citizens take care of themselves. As many of them have already started having difficulty walking, in a few years, we can expect that they will leave the island. Those who have health conditions do not participate in the community meetings and activities any longer. They have infrequent communication with other islanders and rely on their children living off the island. This study clearly suggests that this marginal village will disappear unless we intervene with medical and public elderly care support for the island residents.

著者

小林 信彦 Nobuhiko KOBAYASHI 桃山学院大学文学部

出版者

桃山学院大学総合研究所

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.27, no.1, pp.169-189, 2001-07

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As it is difficult for people in trouble to make preparations for attaining buddhahood, a specialist buddha called Baisajyaguru appears. He removes obstacles such as desease or poverty in order to help people prepare for becoming buddhas. In China he is called Yao-shih and his activities are limited to medical help. He is the ultimate phisysian with supernatural power. Dreaming of eternal life, the Chinese expect him to langthen life. This idea of Yao-shih was brought to Japan in Nara Period and priests chanted the Yao-shih-ching when emperors were in critical condition. On the other hand, the Japanese who were not interested in becoming buddhas paid no attention to his primary function to help people become buddhas.

著者

三宅 亨

出版者

桃山学院大学

雑誌

桃山学院大学総合研究所紀要 (ISSN:1346048X)

巻号頁・発行日

vol.37, no.3, pp.173-196, 2012-03

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This paper aims to describe the history of the East China Sea area in the medieval Japanese age, with an emphasis on the activities of wako in the area. Their activities have been largely neglected in official historical accounts as marginal. Wako is often defined as "Japanese pirates" in the 14th to 16th centuries. This simplified definition, however, fails to give the entire picture of wako. It is true that wako in their early days were Japanese who raided neighboring Korean islands and coasts for food and local people, whom wako used as their slaves or sold elsewhere as slaves, but this is only part of the wako history. In the latter half of the 14th century, the Mongols, who ruled China in those days, invaded Kyushu, the western part of Japan, twice (in 1274 and 1281), but failed to conquer the country and had to withdraw. A great many people in northern Kyushu suffered the damage caused by the two wars, but the Japanese government in Kamakura did not have enough property for compensation. Some of the dissatisfied common people, as well as samurai warriors, in northern Kyushu began to sail as far as Korea and eventually China sometimes to trade and sometimes to attack and pillage coastal towns and villages. They were referred to as wako and were a source of fear for Koreans and Chinese. The Mongolians were defeated in China and expelled to the north of the border in 1368. The newly-established Ming dynasty faced two problems: the Mongolians, who retreated into the north and the wako, who advanced to the southeastern part of China. While they were busy defending themselves against Mongolian invasions, the Ming dynasty imposed a strict ban on overseas trade by private citizens and merchants for fear that they might cooperate with wako intruders. The Chinese government monopolized overseas trading and began to trade formally with the Muromachi government in Japan, which had replaced the Kamakura government in 1333. The Japanese and Ming trade was temporarily suspended in 1423 as a result of a clash between two Japanese trading ships. Some Chinese merchants took advantage of this incident and started smuggling with Japanese. They joined hands with Chinese pirates to protect themselves and their trading goods. Eventually, they armed themselves and came to work together with their Japanese counterparts. Although the word wa means "Japanese", Chinese predominated the wako in the middle of the 16th century. There were Koreans, Southeastern smugglers, and even Portuguese among the wako. One of the most prominent wako leaders was Wang Zhi (?-1559). He was originally a Chinese merchant, but he joined wako groups after he failed in his business in the 1530s. He sailed to Japan as a smuggler and settled in Goto, an island at the western end of Japan, and later in Hirado, a seaport in the northwestern tip of Kyushu. According to official school textbooks in Japan, two Portuguese visitors to a small island introduced matchlock muskets to Japan in 1453. Actually, however, their visit to Tanegashima island was arranged by Wang Zhi, who decided that the gun business was his new business opportunity. Wang also helped a Portuguese mercantile ship to come to Hirado, the first visit ever by Westerners to mainland Japan. By this time he was acknowledged as the paramount wako leader and the most wanted pirate by the Ming dynasty. In 1548, the Ming authorities attacked an island off Ningbo, a port for official Japanese-Ming trade. The island had served as the largest base for wako activities since 1526, but now their facilities were completely destroyed, and wako had to retreat from the island and seek new bases elsewhere. This triggered a series of large counterattacks by Chinese wako. They raided southeastern coastal cities. The Ming dynasty could not control them any longer, and many cities were captured and looted, and numerous innocent citizens were killed during the raids. The wako attacks lasted until 1557 when Wang Zhi decided to return home from Japan to China after his mother, wife and children were held in custody. He was executed later in 1559. The other Chinese wako fled west to the Fujian and Guangdong area. It was at the end of the 16th century that wako disappeared from the South China Sea. As we have seen above, wako were not necessarily "Japanese pirates". They were armed smugglers consisting of Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, and Southeast Asians. They contributed a great deal to the economic development and advance in civilization of the East China Area in the transitional period from the medieval age to early-modern times of Eastern Asia.